朝鮮時代 三身佛會圖에 관한 硏究 = (A) Study on painting of Three Assemblies of Buddhas(三身佛會圖) in Chosun dynasty
저자
발행사항
서울 : 동국대학교 대학원, 2001
학위논문사항
學位論文(碩士)-- 東國大學校 大學院: 美術史學科 2001
발행연도
2001
작성언어
한국어
주제어
KDC
654.22 판사항(4)
DDC
755.943 판사항(21)
발행국(도시)
서울
형태사항
ii, 162p. : 삽도 ; 26cm.
일반주기명
부록(도판목록과 도판) : p. 134-162
참고문헌: p. 120-125
초록: p. 126-133
DOI식별코드
소장기관
The coming of Sakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) was an epoch-making event in the history of mankind. Since Sakyamuni has achieved complete truth, a good variety of views on Buddhas and Buddha- kayas have been unfolded through the entire Buddhist history. So great was his influence that his message and personality are still a living reality in the life of Buddhists.
As all the views on Buddhas had no choice to be accompanied by Buddha-kaya theories, a spate of controversies were made and examined. First of all, referring to the Indian Buddhist history, we can find the plain views on Sakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) the Buddha of the Primitive Buddhism, and the other views of the Divided Buddhism consisting of Sthavira(上座部) and Mahasamghika(大衆部).
While Sthavira(上座部) put much emphasis on historical figure of Buddhas, Mahasamghika(大衆部) greatly emphasized ideal aspects of Buddhas. Those opposed views on Buddhas brought Twofold-body Theory of Dharma-kaya(法身) and Nirmana-kaya(化身). To give a detailed explanation, Sakya Tathagata who has reached the very peak of transcendental wisdom is one of Nirmana-kayas(化身), whereas Maha Vairocana Tathagata is the very manifestation of the everlasting Dharma-kaya(法身) Buddha.
Coming of the era of Mahayana Buddhism, the views on Buddhas became more diversified and enlarged. Especially the thoughts of Bodhisattva(菩薩), who has been a guide for mankind as well as tried to achieve the Ultimate Enlightenment, deepened the views on the reality of Buddha.
Therefore, in the mid Mahayana Buddhism, the views on Buddha-kayas developed into Threefold-body Theory of Dharma-kaya(法身), Nirmana-kaya(化身) and Sambhoga-kaya(報身). Sambhoga-kaya(報身) is a third and compromised form of Buddha between Dharma-kaya, the ultimate truth of universal light, and Nirmana-kaya(化身), historial persons who have achieved Ultimate Enlightenment.
Vairocana(毘盧遮那) as Dharma-kaya(法身) originated from the light of Universe in Zoroastrianism. He is the whole entity invisible but immanent and immortal. He is the very origin of Universe, controlling it with his power of illumination. So he is the supremacy among other Buddhas.
Locana(盧舍那) as Sambhoga-kaya(報身), usually represented as a figure of Bodhisattva(菩薩) wearing luxurious robes and crown, is the one who has achieved ultimate reality through the practice of great spiritual perfections in numberless births during an incomprehensible length of time. Though invisible to ordinary men, he not only has searched for Ultimate Enlightenment of Vairocana but also is a way-finder, a guide for disciplined Buddhists who want to be free from the ills of the continuing migration through endless series of rebirths.
Sakya Tathagata(釋迦佛) as Nirmana-kaya(化身) is a historical figure born to the world as Sidhartha Gotama in order to save mankind who can't see Locana(盧舍那) and Vairocana(毘盧遮那). He is the one of a number of Nirmana-kaya(化身) Buddhas who historically existed in India.
Triratna(The Three Precious Ones) - Dharma, Sambha, and Buddha - has been developing its concept on the basis of Buddha's reality. It may be attributed to the sole Moon above sky, the moonbeams between the moon and water, and lots of reflected moons on the surface of water, and also reminds us of Christian Holy Trinity - the Father, the Son and the holy Spirit.
Thus Threefold-body Theory of Buddhism, I believe, is very interesting topic to study in the field of compared philosophy of religions as well as in art history. After Threefold-body Theory were established in India, the issues of Christian Trinity were comprehended in the Great Council of Nicaea in 325AD. Buddhist Triratna shares its doctrine with Christian Trinity, and has shown many affiliated iconographies in art works. It is said that Christian philosophy has been developed by the influence of Buddhist precepts. Some scholars presume that Christian Bible was derived from Buddhist sutras. With this background, Threefold-body Theory of Buddhas suggests lots of interdisciplinary topic to examine between Buddhism and Christianity in the aspect of religion as well as artistic iconography.
In Northern part of Asia such as China, Korea and Japan, all the views on Buddhas and Buddha-kayas of Indian Buddhism were prosperous with many schools or sects. It is uncertain that the thoughts of Threefold-body of Buddhas were represented into art works in India, but we find that Vairocana was embodied as supreme Buddha in Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗) of Chinese Buddhism around the mid eighth century. Upon at least the late eighth or early ninth century, Chinese artisans started to make statues of Triratna. Figure 1 and 2 are those examples of Three Buddhas made in Ming Dynasty (明朝) of China.
In Korea where Buddhism was introduced in 372 AD, it is remarkable that plenty of Triad of Buddhas have been made and worshiped, whereas not so many examples were in India and China. In Japan where Esoteric Buddhism was prosperous, they did not make any statues of Three Buddhas.
Among diverse schools, Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗) was most popular with Korean people, which was based on Avatamska Sutra and Vairocana(毘盧遮那). Following the teachings of Hua-wen Sect. they made a number of statues and images of Vairocana. Particularly we find many marvelous statues of Vairocana in the Unified Shilla(新羅) dynasty around the ninth century.
It is not yet defined when the three Buddhas of Vairocana, Locana (盧舍那) and Sakya Tathagata(釋迦佛) started to be made in Korea. But we estimate that it was about the tenth century, for we have a historical record that tells Three Buddhas were enshrined in Changansa Temple(長安寺) of Keumgangsan Mountain(金剛山) in 982AD.
In Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty(1392-1910) Koreans began to create paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas. The five assemblies of Buddhas(figure 7) now in Japan, is one of those oeuvres. Though Buddhism was suppressed by national ideological policy in Chosun dynasty, a number of paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas were produced with the doctrine of Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗), which continued to prosper till late Chosun.
Besides we have to pay attention to huge paintings of Locana, illustrating the stories of Brahmajala sutra(梵網經). Having the meaning of meshes of net, Brahmajala signifies to net or discipline ordinary people and their life. It suggests an ethic for them to be devoted for their family and country. The precept of Brahmajala sutra, though it is Buddhist, also coincide with the ideas of Confucianism, the ideology of Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty.
Vairocana as The Light of Truth, accompanied ire his left and right by Locana and Sakya Tathagata in paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, has usually been enshrined in the Hall of Light(大寂光殿, 大光明殿). Major temples of Korea such as Hwaumsa, Tongdosa(通度寺), Haeinsa(海印寺), have triptych of three assemblies of Buddhas in their main Hall of Light (大寂光殿, 大光明殿).
The huge Buddhist paintings, typically developed in Korea and as large as ten or fifteen meters, usually presents the theme of three assemblies of Buddhas. Upon important Buddhist ceremonies, it was displayed in front of temple. With this style of painting we understand that people not only continued to support Buddhism economically but also kept their belief in Three Buddhas in spite of suppression in Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty.
The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas are classified into three different types according to their compositions. 1)The first type consists of three Buddha-kayas of Vairocana, Locana and Sakya Tathagata, while 2)the second shows three Buddhas dwelling in their three different Buddhist worlds - Sakya Tathagata(釋迦), Amitabha(阿彌陀) and Bhaisajyaguru(藥師佛) as well as the three Buddha-kayas of type I. 3)The third type presents just one of the three Buddha-kayas from type I.
1) Type I is representative form of the paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, for it has all three Buddha-kayas of Vairocana(毘盧遮那), Locana(盧舍那) and Sakya Tathagata(釋迦). Again we may divide it into three detailed variations; a)Locana takes the figure of crowned Bodhisattva (figures 12∼19), b)Locana takes the figure of Buddha without crown(figures 20∼25), and c)Sakya Tathagata exceptionally takes the figure of crowned Bodhisattva, figure 26). Among these three variations, Locana as Buddha of item b) wears humble and modest robes even without luxurious crown, necklets or bracelets, which are typical attributes of Locana.
2) Type II shows double composition of three Buddha-kayas (Vairocana, Locana and Sakya Tathagata) and three Buddhas in three places(Sakya Tathagata, Amitabha and Bhaisajyaguru). It is said that Type II is the result from unifying two different Buddhist doctrines under the repression of Chosun dynasty. Avatamska Sutra of Hua-wen Sect takes Vairocana as supreme Buddha, while Sutra of Lotus portrays Sakyamuni as principal Enlightened one. As composed of five Buddhas of Vairocana(毘盧遮那), Locana(盧舍那), Sakya Tathagata(釋迦), Amitabha(阿彌陀) and Bhaisajyaguru(藥師佛), type II is usually represented with crossed or triangular compositions. We may categorize type II into two detailed ones; a) the one including all five Buddhas(figures 27∼31) and b) the other without some of them(figures 30, 32∼33). Type II may have its emphasis either on three Buddha-kayas or on Buddhas in each their three places.
3) In type III, only one of the three Buddha-kayas is illustrated according to religious requirements. It may represent a) Vairocana as Dharma-kaya(figures 34∼40), b) Locana as Sambhoga-kaya (figures 41∼47), or c) Sakya Tathagata as Nirmana-kaya(figures 48∼52). In the case of b) Locana and c) Sakya Tathagata, Vairocana appears in their crowns, symbolizing the fact that himself is the very root of Buddhist reality in the organic relationship with the other Buddha-kayas.
Though they have similar face and body, the three Buddha-kayas mentioned above can be identified by their positions and gestures of hands. Vairocana of the center takes Bodhasri mudra(智拳印) putting two hands on his breast, which signifies ultimate truth, whereas Locana on the right demonstrates Vitarka mudra(說法印) opening two arms outward. On the left Sakyamuni rests his right hand on his knee pointing to the earth. It is the famous Bhumisparsa mudra(觸地印), which is the sign of announcing his triumph against Mara, the personification of evil. Vitarka mudra(說法印) of Locana changes from ∨-shape in Koryo(高麗) dynasty(figures 5∼9) to paralleled 11-shape in early Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty(figures 14∼16). In late Chosun dynasty Locana gathers his hands to form ∧-shape(figures 21, 22). The three Buddhas are placed by the order of Sakya Tathagata, Vairocana and Locana from left to right.
The formations of paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas have been developed from simple compositions to complicated ones three Buddhas with Vairocana at the center or three Buddhas with Vairocana at the rear → three assemblies of Buddhas → double composition of three Buddha-kayas and three Buddhas in three Buddhist places.
The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas are mostly from late Chosun dynasty and show stylistic changes in three stages. In the first stage from 1636 to 1724, they remains in clumsy and indelicate styles of early Chosun. Round composition rather than two layers of upper and lower ones was newly introduced. The Buddhas have remarkably larger body than other figures and are positioned with space. Usually the whole canvas is covered with bright and rich colors of emerald, pink, and yellow upon main hues of green and scarlet. The patterns of decoration are delicate and exquisite, realizing the beautiful and majestic Buddhist world.(figures 12, 29, 30, 32, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51)
In the second stage from 1725 to 1800, Koreans established political and economic stability, and achieved Koreanized style for the paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas based upon the prosperity of Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗). The whole space of canvas is filled with Buddhas and other figures placed in their own positions. Pure blue as well as bright green and scarlet give light atmosphere to the paintings.(figures 13∼16, 18, 28, 34, 43, 46∼49, 52)
In the third stage from 1801 to 1910, stylistic retreat is remarkable. Political uproar and economic instability reflected its influence on artistic techniques and compositions of the paintings. A number of widened canvas were used, and usually filled with lots of figures. Especially figures around the Buddhas are presented with bigger bodies than former stages. Canvases are covered with turbid and impure colors. However we find new stylistic trends from western painting such as chiaroscuro in this stage.
The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas examined above represent most beautiful and ideal world of Buddhism, which consists of perfections of Dharma-kaya(法身), Nirmana-kaya(化身) and Sambhoga-kaya(報身). With the unique composition and iconography Korean artisans realize Buddhist thoughts of Hua-wen Sect into art work. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, I believe, are distinguished artistic embodiment of universal truth of Buddhism as well as one of the most perfect objects to be worshiped.
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