Geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering handbook

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• List of Figures = xxxiii
• List of Tables = liii
• Contributing Authors = lix
• Preface = lxv
• Ⅰ. BASIC BEHAVIOR AND SITE CHARACTERIZATION = 1
• 1. Introduction / R. K. Rowe = 3
• 1.1 Geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering = 3
• 1.2 Objectives and organization of the book = 3
• 1.3 Limitations = 5
• 2. Basic Soil Mechanics / P. V. Lade = 7
• 2.1 Introduction = 7
• 2.2 Soil types : geologic formation and classification = 7
• 2.2.1 Basic elements. soil forming minerals and types of rock = 7
• 2.2.2 The geologic cycle, soil forming processes and types of soil = 8
• 2.2.3 Soil fabric and structure = 9
• 2.2.3.1 Clay fabric = 10
• 2.2.3.2 Fabric of granular soils = 10
• 2.3 Definitions and relationships between basic soil properties = 11
• 2.4 Seepage through saturated soil = 11
• 2.4.1 Basic head equations = 11
• 2.4.2 Darcy's law and hydraulic conductivity = 13
• 2.5 Basic mechanics = 13
• 2.5.1 Analyses of stress : Mohr's circle = 13
• 2.5.2 Analyses of strain : Mohr's circle = 15
• 2.5.3 Other stress representations and stress paths = 16
• 2.5.3.1 s-t diagram = 16
• 2.5.3.2 p-q diagram = 17
• 2.6 State of stress in the ground = 17
• 2.6.1 Effective stress principle = 17
• 2.6.2 Total vertical(overburden) stress = 17
• 2.6.3 Groundwater table and porewater pressure = 18
• 2.6.4 Effective vertical stress = 18
• 2.6.5 Horizontal stress and $$K_0$$ = 19
• 2.7 Compressibility and consolidation = 19
• 2.7.1 Elasticity = 19
• 2.7.2 Modulus variation = 20
• 2.7.3 Compression and expansion = 21
• 2.7.4 One-dimensional consolidation = 23
• 2.7.5 Creep = 26
• 2.8 Stress-Strain and strength behavior = 28
• 2.8.1 Drained behavior of sand = 28
• 2.8.2 Undrained behavior of sand = 31
• 2.8.3 Undrained behavior of normally consolidated clay = 31
• 2.8.4 Undrained behavior of overconsolidated clay = 31
• 2.8.5 Drained behavior of clay = 33
• 2.9 Shear strength = 34
• 2.9.1 Effective strength characterization = 34
• 2.9.2 Total strength characterizations = 35
• 2.10 Elasto-plasticity, critical state soil mechanics and models for soil stress-strain behavior = 36
• 2.10.1 Critical state soil mechanics = 36
• 2.10.2 Modified Cam Clay model = 37
• 2.10.3 Other models = 39
• 2.11 Dynamic soil behavior = 40
• 2.11.1 Determination of modulus and damping = 40
• 2.11.2 Seismic stability of soil structures = 41
• 3. Engineering Properties of Soils and Typical Correlations / P. V. Lade = 43
• 3.1 Engineering propertis and parameters required for characterization = 43
• 3.2 Index tests = 43
• 3.2.1 Grain-size distribution = 43
• 3.2.1.1 Coefficients of uniformity and curvature = 43
• 3.2.2 Particle shape = 45
• 3.2.3 Maximum and minimum void ratios = 45
• 3.2.4 Density index = 45
• 3.2.5 Relative compaction = 46
• 3.2.6 Relative density = 46
• 3.2.7 Atterberg limits = 46
• 3.2.7.1 Liquid limit = 46
• 3.2.7.2 Plastic limit = 47
• 3.2.7.3 Plasticity index = 47
• 3.2.7.4 Liquidity index = 48
• 3.2.7.5 Activity = 48
• 3.2.7.6 Shrinkage limit = 48
• 3.2.8 Expansion index = 48
• 3.2.9 Sensitivity = 49
• 3.2.10 Content of organic material = 49
• 3.2.11 Soil classification = 51
• 3.3 Hydraulic conductivity = 51
• 3.3.1 Laboratory hydraulic conductivity(permeability) tests = 51
• 3.3.2 Typical hydraulic conductivity values and correlations = 54
• 3.4 At rest stress state, $$K_0$$ = 54
• 3.4.1 Normally consolidated soils = 54
• 3.4.2 Overconsolidated soils = 54
• 3.5 Compressibility and consolidation = 55
• 3.5.1 Elastic properties = 55
• 3.5.1.1 Young's modulus = 55
• 3.5.1.2 Poisson's ratio = 55
• 3.5.2 Compressibility = 56
• 3.5.2.1 Preconsolidation pressure = 56
• 3.5.2.2 Virgin compression = 56
• 3.5.2.3 Swelling and recompression = 57
• 3.5.3 Coefficient of consolidation = 57
• 3.5.4 Creep = 58
• 3.5.5 Remolded or disturbed soils = 58
• 3.6 Swelling and shrinkage = 58
• 3.7 Shear strength = 59
• 3.7.1 Laboratory determination of soil behavior = 59
• 3.7.2 Effective strength parameters = 60
• 3.7.2.1 Granular materials : cohesionless soils = 60
• 3.7.2.2 Clays : cohesive soils = 61
• 3.7.3 Undrained shear strength = 62
• 3.7.3.1 Normally consolidated clays = 62
• 3.7.3.2 Overconsolidated clays = 63
• 3.8 Dynamic properties = 64
• 3.8.1 Shear modulus and damping : low strain level excitation = 64
• 3.8.2 Shear modulus and damping : high strain level excitation = 67
• 4. Site Characterization / D. E. Becker = 69
• 4.1 Introduction = 69
• 4.1.1 The need for site characterization = 69
• 4.1.2 Objectives of site characterization = 70
• 4.2 Site characterization process : an integrated approach = 70
• 4.2.1 Site characterization flowchart = 72
• 4.2.2 Reporting = 73
• 4.3 Planning and design of characterization study = 74
• 4.3.1 Role of codes of practice and guidelines = 75
• 4.3.2 Quality management of site investigation = 75
• 4.3.3 Scope of investigation = 75
• 4.3.4 Selection of field equipment and test methods = 78
• 4.3.5 Cost considerations = 79
• 4.3.6 Offshore investigations = 79
• 4.3.7 Contractual aspects = 80
• 4.4 Investigation components and methods = 80
• 4.4.1 Review of background and existing information = 80
• 4.4.2 Aerial photographs and remote sensing = 80
• 4.4.3 Field reconnaissance and mapping = 81
• 4.4.4 Geophysical surveys = 81
• 4.4.5 Borehole drilling and sampling methods = 84
• 4.4.5.1 Backfilling and sealing of boreholes = 86
• 4.4.6 Field and in situ testing = 87
• 4.4.6.1 Standard penetration test(SPT) = 89
• 4.4.6.2 Dynamic cone-penetration test(DCPT) = 91
• 4.4.6.3 Dynamic probing(DP) = 91
• 4.4.6.4 Becker penetration test(BPT) = 91
• 4.4.6.5 Field vane test(FVT) = 92
• 4.4.6.6 Piezo-cone penetration test(CPTU) = 92
• 4.4.6.7 Pressuremeter test(PMT) = 93
• 4.4.6.8 Dilatometer test(DMT) = 94
• 4.4.6.9 Plate-load and screw-plate tests = 94
• 4.4.6.10 Other tests to measure in situ horizontal stress = 94
• 4.5 Interpretation of engineering characteristics and properties based on in situ tests = 96
• 4.5.1 Use of statistical methods = 97
• 4.6 Observational approach and monitoring = 97
• 4.6.1 Field instrumentation and monitoring = 100
• 4.7 Characterization of groundwater = 101
• 4.7.1 Water levels, piezometric pressures and sampling = 102
• 4.7.2 In situ hydraulic conductivity tests = 103
• 4.8 Environmental site characterization = 104
• 4.8.1 Investigation of landfills and contaminated land = 104
• 5. Unsaturated Soil Mechanics and Property Assessment / D. G. Fredlund ; G. W. Wilson ; S. L. Barbour = 107
• 5.1 Introduction = 107
• 5.1.1 Basic concepts in unsaturated soil mechanics = 109
• 5.2 Soil-water characteristic curve = 110
• 5.2.1 Stages of the soil-water characteristic curve = 111
• 5.2.2 Residual conditions for a soil = 113
• 5.2.3 Mathematical form for the soil-water characteristic curve = 114
• 5.2.4 Laboratory measurement of the soil-water characteristic curve = 116
• 5.2.5 Estimation of the soil-water characteristic curve = 117
• 5.3 Stress state variables of unsaturated soils = 120
• 5.3.1 Measurement of soil suction : matric, osmotic and total suction = 121
• 5.4 Boundary conditions = 122
• 5.4.1 Evaporation, evapotranspiration and the prediction of the flux boundary condition = 124
• 5.5 Seepage through unsaturated soils = 125
• 5.5.1 Hydraulic conductivity function = 126
• 5.5.2 The water storage function = 128
• 5.5.3 Measurement of the hydraulic conductivity function = 128
• 5.5.4 Estimation of the hydraulic conductivity function and the water storage function from the soil-water characteristic curve = 130
• 5.5.5 Estimation of the water storage function from the soil-water characteristic curve = 133
• 5.5.6 Formulation of the steady state and unsteady state seepage analysis = 133
• 5.6 Shear strength of unsaturated soils = 134
• 5.6.1 Shear strength function with respect to soil suction = 134
• 5.6.2 Measurement of the shear strength function with respect to soil suction = 135
• 5.6.3 Estimation of the shear strength function from the soil-water characteristic curve = 136
• 5.6.4 Formulation for bearing capacity problems = 140
• 5.6.5 Formulation for lateral earth pressure problems = 140
• 5.6.6 Formulations for slope stability problems = 140
• 5.7 Volume change in unsaturated soils = 142
• 5.7.1 Measurement of the volume change function = 143
• 5.7.2 Estimation of the volume change moduli = 144
• 5.7.3 Formulation for the prediction of heave of an expansive soil = 144
• 6. Basic Rock Mechanics and Testing / K. Y. Lo ; A. M. Hefny = 147
• 6.1 Introduction = 147
• 6.2 Types of rocks and their classification = 147
• 6.2.1 Rock-forming minerals = 147
• 6.2.2 Rock classification = 147
• 6.2.2.1 Geological classification = 148
• 6.2.2.2 Engineering classification = 150
• 6.3 Laboratory measurements of strength and deformation properties of intact rock = 154
• 6.3.1 Uniaxial compression test = 155
• 6.3.2 Deformation parameters for cross-anisotropic rocks = 155
• 6.3.2.1 Stress-strain relationships in cross-anisotropic rocks = 155
• 6.3.2.2 Evaluation of parameters = 157
• 6.3.2.3 Results of uniaxial compression test = 157
• 6.3.3 Tensile strength tests = 157
• 6.3.3.1 Brazilian test(indirect tension test) = 157
• 6.3.3.2 Direct tension test = 159
• 6.3.4 Triaxial compression test = 159
• 6.3.3 Triaxial extension test = 159
• 6.4 Time-dependent deformation = 159
• 6.4.1 Free swell test = 161
• 6.4.2 Semi-confined swell test = 162
• 6.5 Failure criteria of a brittle material = 163
• 6.5.1 Griffith criterion = 164
• 6.5.2 Hock-Brown failure criterion = 164
• 6.6 Shear strength of discontinuities = 166
• 6.6.1 Description and measurement of discontinuities = 166
• 6.6.2 Determination of basic friction angle = 166
• 6.6.3 Typical results of tests on rock joints = 168
• 6.7 Measurements of in situ horizontal stresses in rock = 168
• 6.7.1 The United States Bureau of Mines(USBM) method = 168
• 6.7.1.1 Example of calculations = 170
• 6.7.2 Hydraulic fracturing method = 171
• 7. Geosynthetics : Characteristics and Testing / R. M. Koerner ; Y. G. Hsuan = 173
• 7.1 Introduction = 173
• 7.2 Geotextile properties and test methods = 174
• 7.2.1 Physical properties = 174
• 7.2.2 Mechanical properties = 174
• 7.2.3 Hydraulic properties = 176
• 7.2.4 Endurance properties = 177
• 7.3 Geogrid properties and test methods = 179
• 7.3.1 Physical properties = 180
• 7.3.2 Mechanical properties = 180
• 7.3.3 Endurance properties = 180
• 7.4 Geonet properties and test methods = 180
• 7.4.1 Physical and mechanical properties = 181
• 7.4.2 Hydraulic properties = 181
• 7.4.3 Endurance properties = 181
• 7.5 Geomembrane properties and test methods = 181
• 7.5.1 Physical properties = 182
• 7.5.2 Mechanical properties = 183
• 7.5.3 Endurance properties = 185
• 7.6 Geosynthetic clay liner properties and test methods = 185
• 7.6.1 Physical properties = 186
• 7.6.2 Hydraulic properties = 186
• 7.6.3 Mechanical properties = 186
• 7.6.4 Endurance properties = 187
• 7.7 Geocomposite properties and test methods = 187
• 7.7.1 Separation geocomposites = 187
• 7.7.2 Reinforcement geocomposites = 187
• 7.7.3 Filtration geocomposites = 188
• 7.7.4 Drainage geocomposites = 188
• 7.7.5 Containment(barrier) geocomposites = 188
• 7.8 Degradation mechanisms for polymers = 188
• 7.8.1 Oxidation degradation = 188
• 7.8.1.1 Oxidation degradation mechanisms of polyolefins = 189
• 7.8.1.2 Accelerated tests and lifetime predictions = 190
• 7.8.2 Ultraviolet degradation = 190
• 7.8.3 Biological degradation = 191
• 7.8.4 Hydrolytic degradation = 191
• 7.9 Allowable versus ultimate geotextile and geogrid properties = 192
• 7.9.1 Strength related applications = 193
• 7.9.1.1 Allowable strength approach = 193
• 7.9.1.2 Limit state approach = 193
• 7.9.2 Liquid flow related applications = 194
• 7.10 Summary = 194
• 8. Seepage, Drainage and Dewatering / R. W. Loughney = 197
• 8.1 Introduction = 197
• 8.2 Geology, hydrogeology and hydrology = 197
• 8.2.1 Geology = 197
• 8.2.2 Hydrogeology = 197
• 8.2.3 Hydrology = 198
• 8.2.3.1 Basic flow equations = 198
• 8.2.3.2 Graphical approach = 200
• 8.3 Seepage and drainage = 205
• 8.3.1 Seepage = 205
• 8.3.2 Drainage = 205
• 8.4 Area to be dewatered = 206
• 8.5 Assessment of groundwater conditions = 207
• 8.6 Selection of dewatering systems = 208
• 8.6.1 Dewatering systems = 208
• 8.6.2 Soil stabilization systems = 208
• 8.6.2.1 Vacuum applied to the soil = 208
• 8.6.2.2 Electro-osmosis = 213
• 8.6.3 Cut-off walls : grouting and freezing = 214
• 8.6.4 Open pumping = 214
• 8.6.5 Recharge = 214
• 8.7 Design of the dewatering system = 214
• 8.7.1 Well-screens = 215
• 8.7.2 Filter packs = 216
• 8.7.3 Pump units = 217
• 8.7.4 Piping and fittings = 217
• 8.8 Installation, operation and removal of dewatering systems = 218
• 8.8.1 Installation = 218
• 8.8.2 Operation = 218
• 8.8.3 Removal = 218
• 8.9 Permanent dewatering system = 218
• 8.10 Dewatering specifications = 218
• 8.10.1 Specified end result = 219
• 8.10.2 Specified minimum groundwater control system = 219
• 8.10.3 Specified complete groundwater control system = 219
• 8.10.4 Specialty contractors responsibility = 220
• 8.11 Summary = 220
• Ⅱ. FOUNDATIONS AND PAVEMENTS = 221
• 9. Shallow Foundations / J. C. Small = 223
• 9.1 Introduction = 223
• 9.2 Types of Shallow Foundations = 223
• 9.2.1 Strip footings = 223
• 9.2.2 Pad footings = 223
• 9.2.3 Combined footings = 224
• 9.2.4 Raft or mat foundations = 224
• 9.2.5 Inspection = 224
• 9.3 Bearing capacity = 224
• 9.3.1 Uniform soils = 225
• 9.3.1.1 Undrained case = 227
• 9.3.1.2 Drained case = 227
• 9.3.1.3 Accuracy of Terzaghi's factors = 228
• 9.3.1.4 Effect of footing shape = 228
• 9.3.1.5 Net bearing capacity = 228
• 9.3.1.6 General formulae = 229
• 9.3.1.7 Soil layers of finite depth = 232
• 9.3.2 Non-uniform soils = 232
• 9.3.2.1 Strength increasing with depth = 234
• 9.3.2.2 Fissured clays = 235
• 9.3.2.3 Footings on slopes = 237
• 9.3.2.4 Layered soils = 238
• 9.4 Settlement = 240
• 9.4.1 Limits of settlement = 240
• 9.4.2 Settlement computation = 240
• 9.4.3 Theory of elasticity = 242
• 9.4.3.1 One-dimensional conditions = 242
• 9.4.3.2 Three-dimensional problems = 242
• 9.4.4 Rate of settlement = 244
• 9.4.5 Numerical approaches = 246
• 9.4.5.1 Layered soil : finite layer approaches = 246
• 9.4.5.2 Non-linear materials = 246
• 9.4.6 Settlement of footings on sand = 247
• 9.4.6.1 Methods based on the standard penetration test(SPT) = 247
• 9.4.6.2 Method based on static cone penetrometer = 249
• 9.4.7 Methods based on settlement and bearing criteria = 250
• 9.4.8 Estimating the soil parameters = 252
• 9.5 Raft foundations = 252
• 9.5.1 Strip rafts = 253
• 9.5.2 Circular rafts = 253
• 9.5.3 Rectangular rafts = 255
• 9.5.4 Raft foundations of general shape = 256
• 9.6 Reactive soils = 257
• 9.6.1 Rafts on reactive soils = 257
• 9.7 Cold climates = 257
• 9.8 Limit state design = 258
• 10. Pile Foundations / H. G. Poulos = 261
• 10.1 Introduction = 261
• 10.1.1 Design objectives = 261
• 10.1.2 Criteria for design = 261
• 10.1.3 Types of piles and their uses = 262
• 10.2 Pile load capacity = 263
• 10.2.1 Dynamic calculation methods = 263
• 10.2.2 Static calculation methods = 264
• 10.2.2.1 General principles = 264
• 10.2.2.2 Saturated clay soils : α method = 264
• 10.2.2.3 Saturated clay soils : β method = 265
• 10.2.2.4 Non-cohesive soils = 266
• 10.2.2.5 Layered soils = 267
• 10.2.3 Methods using in situ test data = 268
• 10.2.3.1 Static cone penetration(CPT) tests = 268
• 10.2.3.2 Standard penetration test(SPT) = 268
• 10.2.4 Uplift capacity = 271
• 10.2.5 Group effects = 271
• 10.2.6 Effects of cyclic loading = 271
• 10.3 Settlement prediction = 273
• 10.3.1 Analysis methods = 273
• 10.3.2 Design charts and equations for single piles = 274
• 10.3.2.1 Non-linear analysis = 275
• 10.3.3 Pile group settlement = 275
• 10.3.3.1 Methods of analysis = 275
• 10.3.3.2 Rapid practical estimation of group settlements = 278
• 10.3.4 Assessment of parameters = 280
• 10.4 Lateral loading = 283
• 10.4.1 Ultimate lateral capacity = 283
• 10.4.1.1 Single piles = 283
• 10.4.1.2 Pile groups = 284
• 10.4.2 Lateral deflection of single piles = 285
• 10.4.2.1 p-y analysis = 285
• 10.4.2.2 Linear elastic solutions = 285
• 10.4.2.3 Non-linear solutions = 287
• 10.4.3 Group effects = 287
• 10.4.4 Assessment of parameters = 288
• 10.4.5 Effects of cyclic loading = 290
• 10.5 General analysis of pile groups = 292
• 10.5.1 Methods of analysis = 292
• 10.5.2 Some elastic-based computer methods = 293
• 10.6 Pile response to externally imposed ground movements = 293
• 10.6.1 Introduction : sources of ground movement = 293
• 10.6.2 Negative friction = 294
• 10.6.3 Expansive soils = 296
• 10.6.4 Piles subjected to lateral ground movements = 296
• 10.6.5 Specific applications = 298
• 10.6.5.1 Piles in unstable slopes = 299
• 10.6.5.2 Piles near an excavation = 299
• 10.6.5.3 Piles in and near embankments = 299
• 10.7 Pile load testing = 299
• 10.7.1 Introduction = 299
• 10.7.2 Static load testing = 300
• 10.7.3 Dynamic pile testing = 300
• 10.7.4 Statnamic testing = 301
• 10.7.5 Interpretation of load test results = 302
• 10.7.5.1 Ultimate load = 302
• 10.7.5.2 Load distribution = 302
• 10.7.5.3 Soil stiffness = 303
• 10.7.6 Integrity testing = 303
• 11. Foundations on Rock / K. Y. Lo ; A. M. Hefny = 305
• 11.1 Introduction = 305
• 11.2 Foundations for tall buildings = 305
• 11.2.1 Design considerations = 305
• 11.2.1.1 Bearing capacity = 305
• 11.2.1.2 Allowable bearing pressure = 305
• 11.2.1.3 Differential settlement = 309
• 11.2.1.4 Effect of excavations in rock on adjacent structures = 309
• 11.2.1.5 Base heave = 310
• 11.2.2 Field tests for the measurement of rock mass modulus = 310
• 11.2.3 Socketed piles into rock = 313
• 11.2.3.1 End bearing resistance = 314
• 11.2.3.2 Shaft resistance = 314
• 11.2.3.3 Estimation of average side shear resistance using empirical correlations = 314
• 11.2.3.4 Design of piles socketed into rock = 316
• 11.3 Concrete dams on rock foundations = 318
• 11.3.1 introduction = 318
• 11.3.2 Methodology = 319
• 11.3.3 Methods of field investigation = 319
• 11.3.4 Strength envelopes of bonded and unbonded contacts = 323
• 11.3.5 Extraction of data from records = 326
• 11.3.6 Methods currently used in stability analysis = 327
• 11.3.7 An example of application of methodology : safety assessment of Barrett Chute Dam = 329
• 11.3.7.1 Design provisions and geological conditions = 329
• 11.3.7.2 Field investigation and condition of contact = 330
• 11.3.7.3 Results of laboratory tests and strength parameters for design analysis = 330
• 11.3.7.4 High uplift pressures measured and remedial measures = 331
• 11.3.7.5 Stability study = 332
• 11.3.8 Experience gained and benefits derived from application of the methodology = 332
• 12. Dynamics of Foundations / M. H. El Naggar = 337
• 12.1 Introduction = 337
• 12.1.1 Design objectives = 337
• 12.1.2 Types of dynamic loads = 337
• 12.1.3 Types of foundations = 338
• 12.2 Shallow foundations = 338
• 12.2.1 Impedance functions of shallow foundations = 338
• 12.2.2 Embedment effects = 341
• 12.2.3 Impedance functions of a layer on halfspace = 342
• 12.3 Deep foundations = 344
• 12.3.1 Impedance functions of piles = 344
• 12.3.2 Pile-soil-pile interaction = 346
• 12.3.3 Impedance functions of pile groups = 347
• 12.3.4 Pile batter = 348
• 12.3.5 Non-linear response of piles = 348
• 12.3.6 Seismic response of pile foundations = 348
• 12.3.7 Experimental studies on response of piles = 349
• 12.3.7.1 Full-scale field tests = 349
• 12.3.7.2 Small prototype field tests = 349
• 12.3.7.3 Small-scale laboratory tests = 350
• 12.3.7.4 Centrifugal modeling = 350
• 12.4 Response of machine foundations = 350
• 12.4.1 Response of rigid foundations in one degree-of-freedom = 350
• 12.4.2 Coupled response of rigid foundations = 351
• 12.4.2.1 Direct solution = 351
• 12.4.2.2 Modal analysis = 352
• 12.4.3 Response of rigid foundations in six degrees-of-freedom = 353
• 12.5 Response of hammer foundations = 355
• 12.5.1 Types of hammers and hammer foundations = 355
• 12.5.2 Design criteria = 355
• 12.5.3 Response of one mass foundation = 356
• 12.5.4 Response of two mass foundation = 357
• 13. Pavement Design / R. Haas ; B. L. Rodway = 361
• 13.1 Introduction = 361
• 13.2 Geotechnical and environmental considerations = 361
• 13.2.1 Soils investigation and engineering properties = 362
• 13.2.2 Drainage = 363
• 13.2.3 Compaction = 364
• 13.2.3.1 Basic principles = 364
• 13.2.3.2 Compaction of soils = 364
• 13.2.3.3 Construction equipment for soil compaction = 365
• 13.2.3.4 Compaction of asphalt layers = 365
• 13.2.3.5 Specifications for compaction of asphalt layers = 366
• 13.2.3.6 Asphalt compaction equipment = 366
• 13.2.4 Geosynthetics in pavements = 366
• 13.2.5 Environmental considerations = 368
• 13.3 Framework for pavement design = 369
• 13.3.1 Introduction = 369
• 13.3.2 Design objectives and constraints = 369
• 13.3.3 Components of the design framework = 369
• 13.3.4 Categorization of structural design methods = 370
• 13.4 Design inputs and their characterization = 371
• 13.4.1 Material properties and characterization = 371
• 13.4.1.1 Asphalt concrete = 371
• 13.4.1.2 Portland cement concrete = 372
• 13.4.1.3 Granular bases and subbases = 372
• 13.4.1.4 Reinforcement steel = 372
• 13.4.1.5 Traffic loads = 374
• 13.5 Pavement response models = 375
• 13.5.1 Elastic layer theory = 376
• 13.5.2 The finite element method = 376
• 13.5.3 Simplified(Odemark) elastic layer theory = 377
• 13.6 Structural design of flexible road pavements = 377
• 13.6.1 Review of common design methods = 377
• 13.6.2 Experience-based design = 377
• 13.6.3 Empirically based design : the AASHTO design method = 379
• 13.6.4 Mechanistic-empirical based design : the Asphalt Institute method = 380
• 13.7 Structural design of airfield pavements = 382
• 13.7.1 An overview = 382
• 13.7.2 Airfield pavement types and comparative thicknesses = 383
• 13.7.2.1 Airfield pavement thickness design = 384
• 13.7.3 Airfield pavement failure and safety considerations = 386
• 13.8 Structural design of rigid pavements for roads = 386
• 13.8.1 Types of rigid pavements = 386
• 13.8.2 Basic factors in thickness design = 387
• 13.8.2.1 Flexural strength of concrete = 387
• 13.8.2.2 Subgrade and subbase support = 387
• 13.8.2.3 Design or life-cycle period = 387
• 13.8.3 Thickness design methods = 388
• 13.8.4 AASHTO thickness design procedure(AASHTO 1993) = 388
• 13.8.5 Portland Cement Association thickness design procedure = 388
• 13.8.6 Consideration of joints in design = 389
• 13.8.7 Typical joint configurations = 389
• 13.8.8 Approximate, catalog design approach = 389
• 13.9 Design of overlays = 391
• 13.9.1 Introduction = 391
• 13.9.2 Flexible pavement overlay design methods = 391
• 13.10 Application of reliability to pavement design = 392
• 13.11 Economic evaluation of pavement design alternatives = 393
• 13.11.1 Basic principles and approaches = 393
• 13.11.2 Common methods of economic evaluation = 393
• Ⅲ. SLOPE, EMBANKMENT AND WALL STABILITY, AND SOIL IMPROVEMENT = 395
• 14. Slopes and Mass Movements / S. Leroueil ; J. Locat ; G. S$$bprime e$$ve ; L. Picarelli ; R. M. Faure = 397
• 14.1 Introduction = 397
• 14.2 Types of movements = 399
• 14.3 Importance of groundwater conditions in slopes = 399
• 14.3.1 Water flow conditions in soil slopes = 399
• 14.3.2 Particular case of excavations in clays = 401
• 14.3.3 Triggering or aggravating factors related to water = 402
• 14.3.4 Flow nets = 402
• 14.3.5 Particular case of rock slopes = 403
• 14.4 Analysis of slope movements : generalities = 404
• 14.4.1 Pre-failure = 405
• 14.4.2 Failure = 406
• 14.4.3 Post-failure = 407
• 14.4.4 Reactivation = 408
• 14.5 Methods of slope stability analysis = 409
• 14.5.1 General remarks = 409
• 14.5.2 Infinite slope = 411
• 14.5.3 Methods of slices = 412
• 14.5.4 Global method : perturbation method = 414
• 14.5.5 Planar failure = 415
• 14.5.6 Wedge failure = 416
• 14.5.7 Toppling failure = 418
• 14.6 Risk assessment associated to slope movements = 420
• 14.6.1 Total risk = 420
• 14.6.2 Elements at risk and their vulnerability = 421
• 14.6.3 Hazard = 421
• 14.6.4 Tolerable risk = 422
• 14.7 Methods of mitigation = 423
• 14.7.1 Generalities = 423
• 14.7.2 Elimination of the problem or reduction of its consequences = 423
• 14.7.2.1 Relocation = 423
• 14.7.2.2 Complete or partial removal of unstable materials = 423
• 14.7.2.3 Bridging = 423
• 14.7.2.4 Protection of the structures against soil or rock movements = 423
• 14.7.3 Earthworks = 424
• 14.7.4 Earth retaining systems = 424
• 14.7.5 Drainage systems = 424
• 14.7.6 In situ reinforcement = 426
• 14.7.7 Anchor systems = 427
• 14.7.8 Vegetation = 427
• 14.7.9 Special techniques = 427
• 14.8 Warning systems = 427
• 15. Soil Improvement / B. D. Holtz ; J. Q. Shang ; D. T. Bergado = 429
• 15.1 Introduction = 429
• 15.2 Foundation soil improvement techniques = 432
• 15.2.1 Lightweight fill = 432
• 15.2.2 Removal and replacement = 433
• 15.2.3 Consolidation = 434
• 15.2.3.1 Dewatering and groundwater control = 434
• 15.2.3.2 Preloading by surcharge = 434
• 15.2.3.3 Preloading by vacuum = 436
• 15.2.3.4 Consolidation with vertical drains = 437
• 15.2.3.5 Prefabricated vertical drains = 441
• 15.2.4 Chemical, thermal and electrical stabilization = 443
• 15.2.4.1 Stabilization by chemical admixtures = 444
• 15.2.4.2 Lime and lime-cement columns = 444
• 15.2.4.3 Deep soil mixing = 445
• 15.2.4.4 Intrusion and permeation grouting = 445
• 15.2.4.5 Jet grouting = 447
• 15.2.4.6 Thermal treatment = 447
• 15.2.4.7 Artificial ground freezing = 448
• 15.2.4.8 Electro-osmotic and electro-kinetic stabilization = 449
• 15.2.5 Physical stabilization and densification = 452
• 15.2.5.1 Preloading = 452
• 15.2.5.2 Compaction grouting = 452
• 15.2.5.3 Dynamic compaction = 453
• 15.2.5.4 Blast densification = 454
• 15.2.5.5 Vibro-compaction and vibro-replacement = 454
• 15.2.5.6 Inundation(hydromechanical compaction) = 456
• 15.2.5.7 Compaction piles = 456
• 15.2.5.8 Reinforcement of embankments and foundations = 457
• 15.3 Stabilization of slopes = 457
• 15.3.1 Dewatering and groundwater control = 458
• 15.3.2 Ground anchors and tiebacks = 458
• 15.3.3 Soil nailing = 458
• 15.3.4 Micropiles, root piles and pin piles = 458
• 15.3.5 Biotechnical stabilization = 459
• 15.4 Verification and evaluation of soil improvement = 460
• 15.4.1 Inspection during construction = 460
• 15.4.2 Verification of foundation improvement = 460
• 15.4.3 Instrumentation = 461
• 15.4.3.1 Instrumentation and monitoring during construction = 461
• 15.4.3.2 Post-construction monitoring = 461
• 16. Embankments Over Soft Soil and Peat / S. Leroueil ; R. K. Rowe = 463
• 16.1 General behavior of clay foundations under embankments = 463
• 16.1.1 Behavior during construction = 463
• 16.1.2 Clay behavior after the end of construction = 466
• 16.1.3 Stage construction = 467
• 16.1.4 Pore pressures = 467
• 16.2 General behavior of reinforced embankments on clay foundations = 468
• 16.3 General behavior of peat deposits under embankments = 470
• 16.3.1 Peat characteristics = 470
• 16.3.2 Pore pressures = 471
• 16.3.3 Behavior during and after construction = 472
• 16.4 Settlements = 473
• 16.4.1 Stress distribution under embankments = 473
• 16.4.2 Construction settlement = 474
• 16.4.3 Long-term settlement = 475
• 16.4.3.1 Primary consolidation settlement = 475
• 16.4.3.2 Contribution of the viscosity of clay to total settlement = 475
• 16.4.4 Effect of embankment reinforcement on settlement = 477
• 16.4.5 Settlement of embankments on peat = 478
• 16.5 Lateral displacements = 480
• 16.6 Consolidation = 481
• 16.6.1 Primary consolidation = 481
• 16.6.2 Consideration of viscous and structuring effects = 483
• 16.7 Stability = 484
• 16.7.1 General remarks = 484
• 16.7.2 Embankments constructed in one stage = 484
• 16.7.2.1 Evaluation of mobilized shear strength, $$s_u$$ = 484
• 16.7.2.2 Strength of the weathered crust = 486
• 16.7.2.3 Estimation of stability = 486
• 16.7.3 Choice of strength for embankments constructed in several stages = 487
• 16.8 Solutions to problems of stability and settlement = 487
• 16.8.1 General = 487
• 16.8.2 Berms = 488
• 16.8.3 Reinforced embankments on soft clay = 488
• 16.8.3.1 General considerations = 488
• 16.8.3.2 Bearing capacity limits on reinforced embankment height = 489
• 16.8.3.3 Selecting reinforcement properties = 492
• 16.8.4 Reinforced embankments on peat = 495
• 16.8.4.1 Problem definition = 495
• 16.8.4.2 Peat underlain by a firm base = 495
• 16.8.4.3 Peat underlain by a soft clay／marl layer = 496
• 16.9 Practical considerations : construction, instrumentation and observation analysis = 497
• 16.9.1 Design and construction = 497
• 16.9.2 instrumentation = 498
• 16.9.3 Observation analysis = 498
• 17. Earth Retaining Structures and Reinforced Slopes / R. J. Bathurst ; C. J. F. P. Jones = 501
• 17.1 Introduction = 501
• 17.1.1 Types of earth retaining structures = 501
• 17.1.2 election of type of retaining wall = 504
• 17.1.3 Reinforced slopes = 506
• 17.1.4 Soil reinforcement concepts = 506
• 17.1.4.1 Reinforcement = 506
• 17.1.4.2 Soil = 506
• 17.1.5 Global factor design approach = 507
• 17.1.6 Limit states design approach = 508
• 17.2 Earth pressure theory = 508
• 17.2.1 Earth pressure at rest = 508
• 17.2.2 Rankine earth pressure theory = 508
• 17.2.3 Compaction stresses = 511
• 17.2.4 Coulomb wedge methods = 513
• 17.2.5 Other = 515
• 17.3 Conventional retaining walls = 516
• 17.3.1 Gravity and cantilever walls = 516
• 17.3.2 Sheet pile walls(cantilever and anchored) = 517
• 17.3.3 Braced excavations = 518
• 17.3.4 Other types of retaining structures(diaphragm walls and cut-offs) = 520
• 17.4 Reinforced soil walls = 522
• 17.4.1 Current design methods = 522
• 17.4.2 Tie-back method = 524
• 17.4.2.1 Limit mode 1 : sliding = 524
• 17.4.2.2 Limit mode 2 : bearing and tilting = 524
• 17.4.2.3 Limit mode 3 : reinforcement layer rupture = 525
• 17.4.2.4 Limit mode 4 : pull-out capacity = 526
• 17.4.2.5 Limit mode 5 : wedge／slip circle stability = 526
• 17.4.2.6 Limit mode 6 : deflections = 527
• 17.4.3 Coherent gravity method = 528
• 17.4.3.1 Limit mode 1 : sliding = 529
• 17.4.3.2 Limit mode 2 : bearing／tilt = 529
• 17.4.3.3 Limit mode 3 : element rupture = 529
• 17.4.3.4 Limit mode 4 : element pull-out = 529
• 17.4.3.5 Limit mode 5 : wedge／slip circle stability = 530
• 17.4.3.5 Limit mode 6 : deflections = 530
• 17.4.4 Soil nailing = 530
• 17.5 Reinforced slopes = 531
• 17.5.1 General = 531
• 17.5.2 Two-part wedge analysis with reinforcement = 532
• 17.5.3 Modified circular slip method = 533
• 17.5.4 Design charts = 534
• 17.6 Reinforcement over voids = 535
• 17.6.1 Analytical methods = 535
• 17.6.1.1 Tension membrane theory = 536
• 17.6.1.2 Arching = 536
• 17.6.1.3 Combined arching and tension membrane theory = 536
• 17.6.1.4 BS 8006method = 537
• 17.6.2 Reinforcement on embankment piles = 537
• Ⅳ. SPECIAL TOPICS = 539
• 18. Buried Pipes and Culverts / I. D. Moore = 541
• 18.1 Introduction = 541
• 18.1.1 The buried pipe system = 541
• 18.1.2 Pipe types and limit states = 541
• 18.1.3 Analysis of buried pipes = 542
• 18.1.4 Design standards = 545
• 18.2 Loads = 545
• 18.2.1 Static loads : embankments = 545
• 18.2.2 Static loads : trench installation = 546
• 18.2.3 Construction loading = 548
• 18.2.4 Surface live loads = 548
• 18.2.5 Fluid loading = 548
• 18.2.6 Other loading sources = 548
• 18.3 Response = 550
• 18.3.1 Pipe and soil properties = 550
• 18.3.1.1 Pipe modules and wall properties = 550
• 18.3.1.2 Pipe stiffness = 550
• 18.3.1.3 Soil properties = 551
• 18.3.2 Soil-pipe interaction solutions = 551
• 18.3.3 Positive and negative arching = 553
• 18.3.4 Classification for flexible and rigid pipes = 553
• 18.3.5 Thrust and moment = 555
• 18.3.5.1 General expressions = 555
• 18.3.5.2 Limiting values = 555
• 18.3.5.3 Non-circular pipes and culverts = 556
• 18.3.5.4 Empirical limits = 556
• 18.3.6 Deflection = 556
• 18.3.6.1 Deflection limits = 556
• 18.3.6.2 Deflection resulting from static earth pressures : elastic theory = 557
• 18.3.6.3 Deflection resulting from static earth pressures : limiting values = 558
• 18.3.6.4 Deflection resulting from static earth pressures : Spangler's equation = 558
• 18.3.6.5 Pipe stiffness and flexibility = 558
• 18.3.7 Stress and strain = 559
• 18.3.8 Buckling = 559
• 18.4 Backfill selection and pipe installation = 560
• 18.5 Design examples = 561
• 18.5.1 Concrete storm sewer = 562
• 18.5.1.1 Structural design to limit crack width = 562
• 18.5.1.2 Indirect design = 563
• 18.5.1.3 Direct design = 563
• 18.5.1.4 Trench versus embankment loading = 564
• 18.5.2 Large diameter corrugated steel culvert = 564
• 18.5.3 High density polyethylene drainage pipe = 566
• 19. Trenchless Technology / G. W. E. Milligan ; C. D. F. Rogers = 569
• 19.1 Introduction = 569
• 19.2 Techniques involving excavation = 570
• 19.2.1 Principles of operation = 570
• 19.2.2 Pipe jacking and microtunneling = 570
• 19.2.3 Auger boring = 573
• 19.2.4 Directional drilling = 573
• 19.2.5 Geotechnical engineering considerations = 574
• 19.2.5.1 Introduction = 574
• 19.2.5.2 Face stability, excavation method and shield thrust force = 574
• 19.2.5.3 Tunnel stability and pipeline friction = 576
• 19.2.5.4 Calculation of ground movements = 579
• 19.2.5.5 Use of lubrication = 580
• 19.2.5.6 Jacking shafts = 581
• 19.2.5.7 Geotechnical considerations for other techniques = 581
• 19.3 Techniques involving ground displacement = 582
• 19.3.1 Principles of operation = 582
• 19.3.2 Moling and guided drilling = 582
• 19.3.3 Pipe bursting = 583
• 19.3.4 Pipe ramming = 584
• 19.3.5 Geotechnical engineering considerations = 584
• 19.3.5.1 Factors influencing void creation = 584
• 19.3.5.2 Void stability and pipeline friction = 585
• 19.3.5.3 Calculation of ground movements = 586
• 19.3.5.4 Influence on the buried infrastructure and adjacent structures and services = 588
• 19.4 Pipeline rehabilitation techniques = 588
• 19.5 Practical application = 591
• 20. Cold Region Engineering / J. -M. Konrad = 593
• 20.1 Introduction = 593
• 20.2 Thermal considerations = 593
• 20.2.1 Heat flow through soils = 593
• 20.2.1.1 Steady state = 593
• 20.2.1.2 Transient state = 594
• 20.2.2 Thermal properties of soils and other materials = 595
• 20.2.2.1 Thermal conductivity = 595
• 20.2.2.2 Heat capacity = 595
• 20.2.2.3 Latent heat = 596
• 20.2.2.4 Thermal resistance = 596
• 20.2.3 Thermal boundary conditions = 596
• 20.2.3.1 Generality = 596
• 20.2.3.2 Freezing and thawing indices at ground surface = 598
• 20.3 Ice formation in freezing soils = 600
• 20.3.1 Unfrozen water content = 600
• 20.3.2 Water migration and ice lens formation = 601
• 20.3.3 Segregation potential of freezing soils for laboratory conditions = 602
• 20.3.4 Segregation potential for field conditions = 603
• 20.3.4.1 $$SP_{field}$$ from laboratory freezing tests = 604
• 20.3.4.2 $$SP_{field}$$ from field observations = 605
• 20.3.4.3 $$SP_{field}$$ from empirical correlations = 606
• 20.3.5 Prediction of frost depth in frost-susceptible soils = 606
• 20.3.6 Frost heave prediction = 608
• 20.3.7 Thaw weakening = 609
• 20.4 Frost susceptibility of soils = 609
• 20.4.1 Limitations of existing frost-susceptibility criteria = 609
• 20.4.2 Rational evaluation of frost susceptibility = 610
• 20.5 Frost action in civil-engineering works = 610
• 20.5.1 Design considerations = 610
• 20.5.2 Foundations = 611
• 20.5.3 Earth retaining structures and excavations = 611
• 20.5.4 Buried structures = 611
• 20.5.5 Highways = 612
• 20.5.5.1 Frost heave = 612
• 20.5.5.2 Thaw-weakening = 613
• 20.5.5.3 Trends in pavement design = 613
• 21. Earthquake Engineering / W. D. L. Finn = 615
• 21.1 Introduction = 615
• 21.2 Seismological aspects = 615
• 21.2.1 Earthquake occurrence = 615
• 21.2.2 Wave type = 616
• 21.2.3 Earthquake magnitude = 617
• 21.2.4 Earthquake statistics = 618
• 21.2.5 Discrete frequency occurrence = 618
• 21.2.6 Earthquake source zones = 619
• 21.2.7 Maximum magnitude, $$M_x$$ = 619
• 21.2.8 Estimation of maximum magnitude = 619
• 21.2.9 Magnitude from fault break and fault area = 620
• 21.2.10 Probability of occurrence = 620
• 21.3 Wave propagation = 620
• 21.3.1 Elements of wave propagation = 620
• 21.3.2 Strains in the ground = 620
• 21.3.3 Strains in buried pipes = 621
• 21.4 Design ground motions = 622
• 21.4.1 Basic elements = 622
• 21.4.2 Response spectra = 622
• 21.4.3 Simple design spectra = 623
• 21.4.4 Site-specific response spectra = 624
• 21.4.5 Confirmatory dynamic analyses = 625
• 21.4.6 Uniform hazard spectra = 625
• 21.5 Earthquake ground motions = 625
• 21.5.1 Ground motion attenuation relations for crustal earthquakes = 625
• 21.5.2 Ground motion attenuation relations for subduction zone earthquakes = 627
• 21.6 Effects of soil conditions on ground motion = 627
• 21.6.1 Non-linear soil behavior = 628
• 21.6.2 Site classification-based amplification factors = 629
• 21.6.3 NEHRP provisions = 630
• 21.6.4 Effects of topography = 631
• 21.6.5 Motions in sedimentary basins = 631
• 21.6.6 Near-fault effects = 632
• 21.7 Seismic soil-structure interaction = 632
• 21.7.1 Kinematic and inertial soil-structure interaction = 632
• 21.7.2 Tau method for assessing interaction effects = 633
• 21.8 Seismic design of retaining structures = 633
• 21.8.1 Dynamic active and passive earth pressure force = 634
• 21.8.2 Saturated backfill = 635
• 21.8.3 Anchored bulkheads = 635
• 21.8.4 Reinforced soil walls = 636
• 21.8.5 Seismic wall displacements = 636
• 21.8.6 Seismic design for tolerable wall displacement = 637
• 21.8.7 Unyielding walls(rigid) = 637
• 21.8.8 Earth pressures for design of rigid walls = 637
• 21.8.9 Practical considerations = 640
• 21.9 Seismic design of foundations = 640
• 21.9.1 Elements of seismic design of foundations = 640
• 21.9.2 Seismic design requirements for foundations = 641
• 21.9.3 Design pressure based on bearing capacity = 641
• 21.9.4 Design loads = 642
• 21.10 Liquefaction = 642
• 21.10.1 Key factors = 642
• 21.10.2 SPT(N) liquefaction assessment chart = 642
• 21.10.3 Magnitude scaling factor, $$K_m$$ = 644
• 21.10.4 Overburden pressure scaling factor, $$K_\sigma $$ = 645
• 21.10.5 Correction factors for static shear, $$K_\alpha $$ = 645
• 21.10.6 Core-penetration test(CPT) = 645
• 21.10.7 Shear-wave velocity = 646
• 21.10.8 Becker penetration test(BPT) = 647
• 21.10.9 Seismic settlement = 647
• 21.10.10 Effects of ground improvement = 648
• 21.11 Residual strength and post-liquefaction deformations = 649
• 21.11.1 Factors controlling residual strength = 649
• 21.11.1.1 Effect of sample preparation = 649
• 21.11.1.2 Stress path = 650
• 21.11.1.3 Residual strength as a function of effective confining pressure = 651
• 21.11.2 Post-liquefaction deformations = 651
• 21.12 Embankment dams = 652
• 21.12.1 Equivalent linear analysis = 652
• 21.12.2 Deformations from acceleration data = 652
• 21.12.3 Deformations from stress data = 653
• 21.12.4 Non-linear methods of analysis = 653
• 21.12.4.1 Elastic-plastic methods = 653
• 21.12.4.2 Direct non-linear analysis = 653
• 21.12.5 Recommendations for analysis = 654
• 21.13 Seismic risk in geotechnical earthquake engineering = 654
• 21.13.1 Seismic risk assessment for dams = 654
• 21.13.2 Approaches to risk assessment = 654
• 21.13.3 Some contentious issues = 656
• 21.13.4 Framework for risk assessment = 657
• 21.13.4.1 Example : risk assessment for Keenleyside Dam = 657
• Ⅴ. GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING = 661
• 22. Geoenvironmental Problem Identification and Risk Management / M. Whittaker ; J. G. Sprenger ; D. D. DuBois = 663
• 22.1 Introduction = 663
• 22.1.1 Framework for risk-based site management = 664
• 22.1.2 Defining goals = 664
• 22.1.3 Regulatory and societal issues = 665
• 22.2 Site assessment for risk-based site management = 667
• 22.2.1 Scope and objectives = 667
• 22.2.2 Site assessment procedural components = 667
• 22.2.2.1 Stage 1 : non-intrusive phase Ⅰ investigations = 667
• 22.2.2.2 Stage 2 : intrusive site assessment = 668
• 22.2.3 Sampling strategies and methods = 669
• 22.2.4 Common difficulties encountered during the site assessment process = 670
• 22.3 Contaminant identification = 670
• 22.3.1 Requirements and objectives = 670
• 22.3.2 Typical contaminants and associated hazards = 670
• 22.3.2.1 Inorganic contamination = 670
• 22.3.2.2 Organic contamination = 671
• 22.3.3 The link between contaminant behavior and risk = 671
• 22.3.3.1 Contaminant partitioning = 672
• 22.3.3.2 Contaminant weathering = 672
• 22.3.4 Selection of analytical parameters = 673
• 22.4 Problem formulation = 674
• 22.4.1 Contaminants = 675
• 22.4.2 Receptors = 675
• 22.4.3 Pathways = 675
• 22.4.4 Conceptual pathway model = 679
• 22.5 Exposure assessment = 679
• 22.5.1 Objectives and link to risk assessment process = 679
• 22.5.2 Basic elements of exposure assessment = 680
• 22.6 Toxicity assessment = 681
• 22.6.1 Objectives and link to risk assessment process = 681
• 22.6.2 Basic elements of toxicity assessment = 681
• 22.6.3 Derivation of exposure limits = 682
• 22.7 Risk characterization = 684
• 22.7.1 Objectives and link to risk assessment process = 684
• 22.7.2 Basic elements of risk characterization = 684
• 22.7.3 Risk description = 685
• 22.7.4 Reporting of uncertainty = 685
• 22.8 Risk communication = 686
• 22.8.1 The need for effective communication = 686
• 22.8.2 External communication = 686
• 22.8.3 Internal communication = 686
• 22.9 Risk management = 687
• 22.9.1 Selection of risk management options = 687
• 22.9.2 Monitoring risk management success = 689
• 22.9.3 Summary = 690
• 23. Physicochemistry of Soils for Geoenvironmental Engineering / J. K. Mitchell = 691
• 23.1 Introduction = 691
• 23.2 Soil mineralogy and composition = 691
• 23.2.1 Mineral compositions and structures = 691
• 23.2.2 Silicate minerals = 691
• 23.2.3 Non-clay minerals in soils = 692
• 23.2.4 Clay mineral structures = 692
• 23.2.5 Clay mineral characteristics = 694
• 23.2.6 Organic matter in soils = 694
• 23.3 Soil water = 695
• 23.3.1 Ice and water structure = 695
• 23.3.2 The influence of dissolved ions = 696
• 23.3.3 Water adsorption by soils = 696
• 23.3.4 Properties of adsorbed water = 696
• 23.4 Clay-water-electrolyte system = 697
• 23.4.1 Ion distributions : the double layer = 698
• 23.4.2 Double layer interactions = 699
• 23.4.3 Factors influencing double layer repulsion = 700
• 23.5 Ion exchange = 701
• 23.6 Soil fabric and its relation to properties = 702
• 23.6.1 Particle associations and fabric scale = 703
• 23.6.2 Single-grain fabrics = 703
• 23.6.3 Multigrain fabrics = 703
• 23.6.4 Fabric-property interrelationships = 704
• 23.7 Physicochemical effects on soil properties and their importance in environmental geotechnics = 705
• 23.7.1 Volume change properties = 705
• 23.7.2 Deformation and strength properties = 706
• 23.7.2.1 Strength = 706
• 23.7.2.2 Stress-strain behavior = 707
• 23.7.2.3 Stress-strain-time behavior = 707
• 23.7.3 Conductivity properties = 708
• 23.7.3.1 Direct flows = 708
• 23.7.3.2 Coupled flows = 709
• 23.7.3.3 Effects of flows on properties = 710
• 24. Contaminant Hydrogeology / R. A. Schincariol ; R. K. Rowe = 711
• 24.1 Hydrogeological environments = 711
• 24.1.1 Saturated and unsaturated zones = 711
• 24.1.2 Aquifers and aquitards = 711
• 24.1.3 Hydrogeologic parameters : porosity, hydraulic conductivity and permeability, transmissivity, storativity and specific yield = 712
• 24.1.4 Hvdrogeologic variables : hydraulic head, flux and velocity, aquifer recharge and discharge = 714
• 24.1.5 Hydrogeologic controls : lithology, stratigraphy and structure = 716
• 24.1.6 Fractured and karst systems : fracture flow = 717
• 24.2 Contaminants and sources = 719
• 24.2.1 Physical and chemical properties of contaminants = 719
• 24.2.2 Hydraulic characteristics of sources = 720
• 24.2.3 Point and non-point sources = 720
• 24.2.4 Loading history = 720
• 24.3 Principles of contaminant transport = 721
• 24.3.1 Mass transport processes : advection, diffusion and dispersion of solutes = 721
• 24.3.1.1 Advection = 721
• 24.3.1.2 Diffusion = 721
• 24.3.1.3 Dispersion = 723
• 24.3.2 Multiphase flow = 724
• 24.3.3 Attenuation of dissolved solutes : biogeochemical processes = 729
• 24.3.3.1 Acid-base reactions = 730
• 24.3.3.2 Solution, volatilization and precipitation reactions = 731
• 24.3.3.2 Sorption = 733
• 24.3.3.4 Oxidation-reduction reactions = 736
• 24.3.3.5 Hydrolysis = 737
• 24.3.3.6 Complexation reactions = 737
• 24.3.4 Facilitated transport of contaminants : cosolvation and colloidal transport = 737
• 25. Barrier Systems / R. K. Rowe = 739
• 25.1 Applications, mechanisms and scope = 739
• 25.2 Transmissive layers = 739
• 25.2.1 Hydraulic capacity of drainage layers = 741
• 25.2.2 Particulate clogging of drainage layers = 742
• 25.2.3 Biologically induced clogging of leachate collection systems = 743
• 25.2.4 Geotextile "filters" in leachate collection systems = 745
• 25.2.5 Granular drainage material in leachate collection systems = 747
• 25.2.6 Service life of leachate collection drainage material = 748
• 25.2.7 Leachate collection pipes = 750
• 25.3 Low permeability liners = 751
• 25.3.1 Geological barriers = 751
• 25.3.2 Compacted clay liners(CCLs) = 752
• 25.3.2.1 Material selection = 752
• 25.3.2.2 Compaction water content and density = 753
• 25.3.2.3 Estimating the hydraulic conductivity of CCLs = 755
• 25.3.2.4 Construction of CCLs = 756
• 25.3.2.5 Required thickness of CCLs = 758
• 25.3.2.6 Construction quality control and assurance = 759
• 25.3.3 Soil-bentonite liners = 761
• 25.3.4 Geosynthetic clay liners(GCLs) = 762
• 25.3.4.1 Hydration of GCLs and hydraulic conductivity = 762
• 25.3.4.2 Effect of holes in GCLs = 765
• 25.3.4.3 Desiccation and frost action = 765
• 25.3.5 Hydraulic containment = 765
• 25.3.6 Geomembrane liners = 768
• 25.3.7 Single composite liners = 768
• 25.3.8 Double composite liners = 769
• 25.3.9 Vertical cut-off walls = 769
• 25.3.9.1 Slurry trench walls = 769
• 25.3.9.2 Geomembranes = 770
• 25.3.9.3 Sheet pile walls = 770
• 25.4 Liner compatibility with leachate = 771
• 25.4.1 Clay-permeant interaction = 771
• 25.4.2 GCL-permeant interaction = 773
• 25.4.3 Geomembrane-permeant interaction = 774
• 25.5 Diffusion through barriers = 776
• 25.5.1 Dissolved-phase diffusion through porous media = 776
• 25.5.1.1 Diffusion through intact and compacted clays = 777
• 25.5.1.2 Diffusion through GCLs = 778
• 25.5.1.3 Diffusion through unsaturated soil = 780
• 25.5.2 Gaseous-phase diffusion through porous media = 781
• 25.5.3 Diffusion through geomembranes = 782
• 25.5.3.1 Factors affecting diffusion through a geomembrane = 783
• 25.5.3.2 Diffusion of water through HDPE geomembrane = 785
• 25.6 Liner temperature = 785
• 25.7 Contaminant impact assessment and equivalence of liner systems = 787
• 25.7.1 Impact assessment = 787
• 25.7.2 Equivalence of GCL and CCL systems = 787
• 25.8 Liner stability = 788
• 26. Geosynthetics in Liquid-containing Structures / J. P. Giroud ; R. Bonaparte = 789
• 26.1 Introduction = 789
• 26.1.1 Types of liquid-containing structures = 789
• 26.1.2 Uses of geosynthetics in liquid-containing structures = 789
• 26.1.3 Geosynthetic liner systems = 789
• 26.1.4 Design considerations = 790
• 26.2 Design of liquid collection layers = 790
• 26.2.1 Introduction to liquid collection = 790
• 26.2.1.1 Liquid collection = 790
• 26.2.1.2 Characteristics of liquid collection layers = 791
• 26.2.1.3 Materials used in liquid collection layers = 791
• 26.2.1.4 Hydraulic head, depth and thickness of liquid = 791
• 26.2.1.5 Design of liquid collection layers = 792
• 26.2.2 Design of primary liquid collection layers = 792
• 26.2.2.1 Analysis of liquid flow in a primary liquid collection layer = 792
• 26.2.2.2 Design of a primary liquid collection layer = 794
• 26.2.2.3 Average head of liquid on top of the primary liner for liquid migration evaluation = 794
• 26.2.3 Design of secondary liquid collection layers = 794
• 26.2.3.1 Analysis of liquid flow in a secondary liquid collection layer = 794
• 26.2.3.2 Design of a secondary liquid collection layer = 795
• 26.2.3.3 Average head of liquid on top of the secondary liner for liquid migration evaluation = 796
• 26.3 Design of filters = 796
• 26.3.1 Introduction of filtration = 796
• 26.3.1.1 Use of filters in liquid-containment structures = 796
• 26.3.1.2 Types of filters = 796
• 26.3.1.3 Functions of filters = 796
• 26.3.1.4 Importance of intimate contact between filter and soil = 797
• 26.3.1.5 Clogging of filters = 797
• 26.3.2 Relevant characteristics of soils and filters = 797
• 26.3.2.1 Characteristics of soils relevant to filter design = 797
• 26.3.2.2 Characteristics of granular filters = 798
• 26.3.2.3 Characteristics of geotextile filters = 798
• 26.3.3 Design of filters = 798
• 26.3.3.1 Filter criteria = 798
• 26.3.3.2 Permeability criterion = 799
• 26.3.3.3 Retention criterion = 800
• 26.3.3.4 Non-clogging criterion = 801
• 26.4 Liquid migration through liners = 801
• 26.4.1 Introduction to liquid migration through liners = 801
• 26.4.1.1 Types of liners = 801
• 26.4.1.2 The low permeability soil component of a composite liner = 801
• 26.4.1.3 Geomembranes = 802
• 26.4.1.4 Liquid migration evaluation = 802
• 26.4.2 Liquid migration through composite liners = 803
• 26.4.2.1 Ideal case : perfect contact = 803
• 26.4.2.2 Description of liquid migration through a composite liner = 803
• 26.4.2.3 Quality of contact between the two components of a composite liner = 803
• 26.4.2.4 Parameters and units used in equations for liquid migration rate evaluation = 804
• 26.4.2.5 General equations for liquid migration rate = 805
• 26.4.2.6 Equations for liquid migration rate for the case of small hydraulic heads = 805
• 26.4.2.7 Limitations of the equations for liquid migration through composite liners = 806
• 26.4.2.8 Leakage through a wrinkle = 806
• 26.4.3 Geomembrane liner = 808
• 26.4.3.1 Geomembrane overlain and underlain by highly permeable media = 808
• 26.4.3.2 Geomembrane overlain by a permeable medium and underlain by a highly permeable medium = 808
• 26.4.3.3 Geomembrane overlain by a permeable medium and underlain by a semi-permeable medium = 809
• 26.5 Stability and deformations of liner systems = 810
• 26.5.1 Introduction = 810
• 26.5.1.1 Types of mechanical actions applied on liner systems = 810
• 26.5.1.2 Instability of soil or waste in contact with linear system = 810
• 26.5.1.3 Deformation of soil in contact with the liner system = 811
• 26.5.1.4 Differential settlement between the soil supporting the liner system and a structure to which the liner system is connected = 811
• 26.5.1.5 Uplift of liner system by fluids = 811
• 26.5.1.6 Concentrated stresses applied on the geosynthetic component of liner system by the materials in contact = 811
• 26.5.2 Geosynthetic strain due to settlement of the supporting medium = 812
• 26.5.2.1 Relationships between geosynthetic deflection and strain = 812
• 26.5.2.2 Relationships between geosynthetic deflection and tension = 813
• 26.5.2.3 Evaluation of the pressure applied on the geosynthetic = 814
• 26.5.2.4 Use of the equations = 814
• 26.5.3 Differential settlement at connection of liner system to rigid structures = 815
• 26.5.3.1 Tension and strain in the geomembrane = 815
• 26.5.3.2 Assumptions = 816
• 26.5.3.3 Presentation of the method = 816
• 26.5.3.4 Practical recommendations = 816
• 26.5.4 Action of wind on geomembranes = 817
• 26.5.4.1 Introduction = 817
• 26.5.4.2 Suction due to wind = 817
• 26.5.4.3 Resistance to wind uplift due to geomembranes self weight = 818
• 26.5.4.4 Prevention of geomembrane uplift = 819
• 26.5.4.5 Analysis of geomembrane uplift = 821
• 26.5.4.6 Anchorage of a geomembrane subjected to wind uplift = 824
• 27. Covers for Waste / R. Bonaparte ; E. K. Yanful = 825
• 27.1 Introduction = 825
• 27.2 Types of cover systems = 825
• 27.2.1 Classification of cover systems = 825
• 27.2.2 Examples of cover systems = 828
• 27.2.3 Gas generation and management = 828
• 27.3 Components of hydraulic-barrier cover systems = 831
• 27.3.1 Typical components = 831
• 27.3.2 Subface layer = 831
• 27.3.3 Protection layer = 831
• 27.3.4 Internal drainage layer = 832
• 27.3.5 Hydraulic-barrier layer = 833
• 27.3.6 Gas transmission layer = 834
• 27.3.7 Foundation layer = 834
• 27.4 Capillary-barrier cover systems = 834
• 27.5 Water balance = 837
• 27.5.1 Overview = 837
• 27.5.2 Water balance concept = 837
• 27.5.3 Water balance methods = 838
• 27.5.4 Simplified manual method = 838
• 27.5.4.1 Description of method = 838
• 27.5.4.2 Design of internal drainage layers = 841
• 27.5.4.3 Refinement to simplified manual method = 841
• 27.5.4.4 Design of slope transitions = 842
• 27.5.5 HELP model = 843
• 27.5.6 LEACHM model = 845
• 27.5.7 UNSAT-H = 846
• 27.5.8 Evaluation of models = 847
• 27.5.9 Recommendations = 848
• 27.6 Static slope stability = 850
• 27.6.1 Overview = 850
• 27.6.2 Limit equilibrium analyses = 850
• 27.6.2.1 Overview = 850
• 27.6.2.2 Infinite slope = 851
• 27.6.2.3 Slope of finite length = 853
• 27.6.3 Stress-deformation analyses = 856
• 27.6.4 Shear strength parameters = 856
• 27.6.5 Construction considerations = 859
• 27.6.6 Factors of safety = 861
• 27.7 Seismic slope stability = 862
• 27.7.1 Overview = 862
• 27.7.2 Seismic hazard evaluation = 862
• 27.7.3 Seismic response analysis = 864
• 27.7.3.1 Introduction = 864
• 27.7.3.2 Material property selection = 864
• 27.7.3.3 Simplified response analysis = 865
• 27.7.3.4 Analytical and numerical seismic response analyses = 868
• 27.7.4 Dynamic shear strength = 869
• 27.7.5 Seismic stability and deformation analysis = 869
• 27.7.5.1 Overview = 869
• 27.7.5.2 Pseudo-static factor of safety method = 869
• 27.7.5.3 Modified pseudo-static factor of safety method = 870
• 27.7.5.4 Permanent seismic deformation method = 871
• 27.8 Settlement = 872
• 27.8.1 Mechanisms of settlement = 872
• 27.8.2 Settlement of foundation soils = 873
• 27.8.3 Overall waste compression = 873
• 27.8.4 Settlement due to localized mechanisms = 876
• 27.8.5 Impacts of settlement on cover system = 876
• 28. Monitoring of Contaminants and Consideration of Risk / E. McBean ; K. Schmidtke ; W. Dyck ; F. Rovers = 879
• 28.1 Components of a groundwater monitoring program = 879
• 28.1.1 Determining monitoring well locations and analytical parameters = 880
• 28.1.1.1 Initial site characterization = 880
• 28.1.1.2 Well location = 830
• 28.1.1.3 Analytical parameters = 884
• 28.1.1.4 Refinement of conceptual site model／selection of supplemental well locations = 885
• 28.1.1.5 Corrective action design = 885
• 28.1.1.6 Corrective action monitoring = 886
• 28.1.2 Monitoring well design and construction = 887
• 28.1.2.1 General = 887
• 28.1.2.2 Design considerations = 887
• 28.1.2.3 Well installation documentation = 890
• 28.1.3 Groundwater sampling = 890
• 28.1.3.1 General = 890
• 28.1.3.2 Purging／sampling equipment = 890
• 28.1.3.3 Field quality control／quality assurance(QC／QA) = 890
• 28.1.3.4 Documentation = 892
• 28.1.4 Sampling frequency = 892
• 28.1.5 Monitoring well nests = 893
• 28.2 Statistical analyses of monitoring data = 893
• 28.2.1 Sources of variability of monitoring data = 894
• 28.2.2 Statistical significance testing procedures = 895
• 28.2.2.1 Types of hypotheses = 895
• 28.2.2.2 General steps of hypothesis testing = 896
• 28.2.2.3 Selection of appropriate significance test = 897
• 28.2.2.4 Interpretation of significance tests : acceptance and rejection regions = 899
• 28.2.3 Procedures for single comparisons = 900
• 28.2.3.1 Student's t-test = 900
• 28.2.3.2 Cochran's approximation to the Behren's Fisher t-test = 902
• 28.2.3.3 linear regression = 903
• 28.2.4 Procedures for multiple comparisons = 904
• 28.2.4.1 Analysis of variance(ANOVA) = 904
• 28.2.4.2 Multiple regression = 906
• 28.2.5 Non-parametric procedures = 906
• 28.2.5.1 Mann-Whitney(U) test = 907
• 28.2.5.2 Spearman's rank correlation coefficient = 908
• 28.2.5.3 Sign test for paired observations = 908
• 28.2.5.4 Kruskal-Wallis test(or non-parametric ANOVA) = 909
• 28.2.6 Methods for censored data = 910
• 28.2.6.1 Simple substitution methods = 910
• 28.2.6.2 Test of proportions = 910
• 28.2.6.3 Plotting position procedure = 911
• 28.2.6.4 Cohen's test = 911
• 28.2.6.5 Aitchison's method = 912
• 28.2.6.6 Maximum likelihood estimator and alternates = 912
• 28.2.6.7 Poisson model = 912
• 28.2.7 Statistical power = 913
• 28.3 Assessment or risk associated with exceedance of boundary criteria = 914
• 28.3.1 Migration pathways of environmental contaminants = 914
• 28.3.2 Exposure assessment procedures = 915
• 28.3.3 Decisions on risk-based corrective action = 916
• 28.4 The case for innovation : a unique visualization method for demonstrating intrinsic remediation = 916
• 29. In situ Containment and Treatment of Contaminated Soil and Groundwater / D. J. A. Smyth ; R. W. Gillham ; D. W. Blowes ; J. A. Cherry = 921
• 29.1 Introduction to contaminated sites = 921
• 29.1.1 Characteristics of contaminated sites = 921
• 29.1.2 Objectives of remediation = 922
• 29.2 Intrinsic remediation = 923
• 29.3 Source-zone restoration = 925
• 29.3.1 Goals and objectives = 925
• 29.3.2 Vadose-zone contamination in the source zone = 926
• 29.3.2.1 Excavation = 926
• 29.3.2.2 Soil vapor extraction and bioventing = 927
• 29.3.2.3 Soil flushing = 929
• 29.3.3 Source-zone restoration in the groundwater zone = 929
• 29.3.3.1 Pumping of immiscible fluids = 929
• 29.3.3.2 In situ mass removal from source zones : chemical flushing = 930
• 29.3.3.3 Thermal flushing techniques = 932
• 29.3.3.4 in situ mass destruction technologies = 932
• 29.4 Source-zone isolation and containment = 933
• 29.4.1 Source-zone enclosures = 933
• 29.4.2 Covers and bottom barriers = 937
• 29.5 In situ plume control and remediation = 937
• 29.5.1 Pump-and-treat remediation = 937
• 29.5.2 Permeable reactive barriers = 939
• 29.5.2.1 General description of barriers = 939
• 29.5.2.2 Hydraulic performance of permeable barrier systems = 940
• 29.5.2.3 In situ treatment technologies for contaminated groundwater = 942
• 29.6 Summary = 944
• 30. Management of Contaminated Soil in Engineering Construction / P. C. Lucia ; G. Ford ; H. A. Tuchfeld = 947
• 30.1 Introduction = 947
• 30.2 Soil management goals = 948
• 30.3 Soil management options = 950
• 30.4 Soil treatment technologies = 951
• 30.5 On-site treatment technologies and containment options = 951
• 30.5.1 Regulatory considerations = 953
• 30.5.1.1 Soil contaminated by petroleum fuel products = 955
• 30.5.1.2 Soil contaminated by hazardous wastes = 955
• 30.5.1.3 Soil contaminated by non-hazardous solid wastes = 956
• 30.5.2 Treatment technologies = 956
• 30.5.2.1 Bioremediation = 956
• 30.5.2.2 Soil vapor extraction = 958
• 30.5.2.3 Stabilization = 959
• 30.5.3 Containment options = 959
• 30.5.3.1 Capping and covers = 959
• 30.5.3.2 Cut-off walls = 960
• 30.5.4 Case study = 960
• 30.6 Off-site treatment technologies and disposal options = 962
• 30.6.1 Regulatory considerations = 963
• 30.6.2 Disposal options = 963
• 30.6.2.1 Non-hazardous waste landfill = 963
• 30.6.2.2 Hazardous waste landfill = 964
• 30.6.2.3 Incineration = 964
• 30.6.2.4 Other off-site management options = 964
• 30.6.3 Treatment technologies = 965
• 30.6.3.1 Aeration = 965
• 30.6.3.2 Bioremediation／landfarming = 965
• 30.6.4 Case study = 966
• References = 967
• Index = 1063
• Conversion Factors US to SI Units = 1088