북한 환경상태: 하수도와 폐기물 = Environmental Status in North Korea: Sewerage and Waste

국문 초록 (Abstract)

제1부 북한 하수도 문헌자료 심층분석
Ⅰ. 서 론
1. 연구의 배경
□ 북한의 경우 1960~1970년대에 상하수도시설이 구비되었을 것으로 추정되나, 최근 하수관로로 배출하여 처리하는 하수도보급률은 한국에 비해서 상당히 낙후된 상황으로 추정됨
□ 북한 하수도에 관한 정보는 알려진 바가 많지 않으며 그나마 회자되는 자료의 신뢰성에 대해서도 검증이 필요한 상황
□ 그러므로 북한 하수도 관련 기존 문헌 등의 토대가 되는 원자료를 검토하고 자료들의 신뢰성을 확인할 필요가 있음
2. 연구의 목적
□ 본 연구의 목적은 지금까지 수행된 북한 하수도 관련 조사 및 연구 문헌들을 검토, 확인, 분석하는 것이며, 추후 북한 하수도 종합계획을 구상, 수립하기 위한 토대로 활용될 수 있도록 신뢰성 있는 자료를 정리하려는 것임
Ⅱ. 북한 하수도 관련 정책 및 법 제도
1. 법령
□ 하수도와 관련된 「환경보호법」, 「하수도법」, 「공중위생법」, 「물자원법」, 「하천법」, 「국토환경보호단속법」, 「환경영향평가법」, 「전염병예방법」, 「바다오염방지법」, 「폐기폐설물취급법」, 「도시경영법」, 「수도 평양시관리법」, 「금강산관광지구법」, 「대동강오염방지법」에 대해 살펴보았음
□ 북한의 「하수도법」은 2009년에 채택되었으며 제1장 「하수도법」의 기본, 제2장 하수도시설의 건설, 제3장 하수도시설의 관리, 제4장 버림물의 처리, 제5장 하수도사업에 대한 지도통제로 구성되어 있음
2. 북한의 환경관리와 하수도 관리의 행정조직
□ 북한의 도시계획 체계는 중앙급 도시총계획과 중소도시급 도시총계획으로 나뉨
○ 중앙급 도시총계획은 중요지구국토건설총계획과 도(직할시) 국토건설총계획으로 나뉨
- 중요지구국토건설은 최고 인민회의의 심의 및 승인을 필요로 함
- 도(직할시) 국토건설총계획은 도(직할시) 인민위원회에서 관리함
○ 중소도시급 도시총계획은 중앙급 도시총계획에 비해 규모가 축소되어 있으며 읍총계획, 노동자구총계획, 마을총계획으로 나뉨
□ 하수도와 관련해서는 중앙의 도시경영성이 그 산하에 있는 도시건설총국을 통해 상하수도시설 등을 전문적으로 관리, 유지, 보수를 함
○ 평양시 산하 군(구역)에는 상하수도사업소, 도시경영사업소가 있으며, 상하수도사업소는 기술망을, 도시경영사업소에서는 건축물과 기타 토목구조물의 경영을 담당함
○ 한편 상하수도시설의 건설은 각 도 직할시 산하 도시건설총국의 시설사업소가 담당하여 진행함
- 시군(구역)에는 도시경영과를 두어, 그 산하의 시설사업소를 지도함
- 평양시를 제외한 기타 시군(구역)에는 상하수도사업소를 따로 두지 않으며 시설사업소를 두어 관리도 함께 수행함
Ⅲ. 북한 하수도 일반 현황
1. 북한 하수도시설 관련 국내 문헌 조사
□ 1960~1970년대, 구소련의 지원으로 평양시에 하수처리장이 건설된 것으로 알려졌으며, 평천구역, 평양시 교외, 통일거리 오수정화장의 3개 하수처리장이 있다고 함
○ 외국의 기술로 설계, 시공되어 한국의 시설과 크게 다르지 않으나, 시설용량을 초과하여 생활 및 공업오폐수로 대동강의 오염이 가중되고 있다고 하며, 전력공급의 문제로 가동이 되지 않는다고 함
□ 한편, 정회성(1995)은 1992년 평양시에 하루 30만 톤 처리능력의 대규모 하수종말처리장(평천오수정화장)이 건설되었으나 평양 전 지역에서 배출되는 하수를 처리하기에는 그 용량이 크게 부족할 것으로 추정하였음. 평양에 분뇨처리시설이 있으나 330만명의 시민이 배출하는 분뇨처리용량의 절반밖에 안 된다고 하였음
□ 정회성(1995)과 정회성, 강광규, 강철구(1996)는 북한이 ‘상하수도 관리규정’을 제정하여 상수원 보호, 식수의 수질관리, 오수의 정화처리 및 빗물의 관리, 상하수도시설의 유지보수 등을 담당하는 기관의 의무와 권한을 제시한 것으로 보고하였음
□ 김정욱 외(2008)는 평양시 하수도보급률이 100%에 달하고 있으나, 지방도시에는 도로변에 접한 아파트에만 하수도시설이 설치되어 있다고 하였음
○ 그 외 단층집에는 침투조를 사용하며 주기적으로 바닥을 청소해야 하는데, 제때에 청소하지 못해 하수도가 월류하는 경우가 있다고 하였음
□ 윤주환(2008)은 우리의 1960~1970년대의 경험과 분뇨처리 경로에 대한 자료를 기반으로 하여 북한의 하수처리율을 19.5%로 추정하였음
○ 환경부는 2013년에 북한의 하수관로보급률이 수세식 위생시설을 사용하는 세대비율과 유사한 50∼60% 수준일 것으로 예상하고, 북한 전체의 하수처리 비율이 35% 수준일 것으로 추정하였음
2. 북한 하수도시설 관련 국제기구 문헌조사
□ 2017년에 수행된 MICS(Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey) 보고서에는 더 상세한 분뇨처리 경로가 나타나 있음
○ MICS 보고서는 북한의 중앙통계청(Central Bureau of Statistics of the DPR Korea)이 UNICEF(The United Nations Children’s Fund)의 기술적, 재정적 지원을 받아 글로벌 MICS 프로그램의 일부로 수행한 결과임
- 설문대상 가구 수는 8,500가구로, 그중 8,499가구를 방문, 면담하였고 응답률이 100%이었음
○ 윤주환(2008)과 유사한 가정에 의해 이 데이터를 사용하여 하수처리율을 도출할 수 있으며, 2008년부터 10년이 경과된 후의 하수처리율 변화를 비교해 볼 수 있음
- 2008년의 하수처리율은 19.5%였으나 2017년의 하수처리율은 56.9%로 증가하였음. 이렇게 급증한 일은 괄목할 만한 성장이라고 볼 수 있음
○ 하지만 두 자료 취득시기의 방법론의 차이와 설문의 차이, 설문응답자의 하수관로시설에 대한 전문적 인지능력 미흡 등에서 발생한 오차일 가능성을 살펴야 하며 하수관로의 정비사업, 하수처리장의 건설, 안정적인 전력공급을 통한 처리시설의 정상적 가동 등이 담보되지 않은 상황에서 하수처리율이 괄목할 만한 증가율을 보인 것이 생활환경 및 수질환경의 개선이 상당히 이뤄졌기 때문이라는 판단은 유보해야 할 듯함
○ 같은 방법으로 북한의 도시 및 시골의 하수처리율과 북한 평양과 각 도별 하수처리율을 산정하였음
- 도시의 하수처리율은 75.5%로 시골의 하수처리율 27.9%보다 2.7배 커서 하수도서비스의 격차가 크게 나타남을 알 수 있음
- 평양시의 하수처리율이 거의 100%라고 알려져 있었지만, 변소시설이 없거나 재래식 변소를 이용하여 처리하지 않는 비율이 9.8%로 나타나 실제 하수처리율이 90.3%라는 것을 알 수 있었음
- 한편, 각 도별 하수처리율은 함경북도가 63.7%로 가장 높고, 자강도가 62.7%로 그다음으로 높으며, 함경남도, 황해북도, 평안북도, 평안남도, 양강도, 강원도, 황해 남도의 순으로 나타났고 황해남도가 35.1%로 가장 낮았음을 알 수 있었음
□ 북한의 정화조로 배출된 분뇨는 농경지에 비료로 사용되는 비율이 21.6%(도시 23.1%, 시골 20.7%)이고, 개량변소(수세식, 수거식)를 통해 배출된 분뇨는 68.7%(도시 60.3%, 시골 73.8%)가 농경지에서 사용되고 있음
○ 즉 정화조든 개량변소든 배출된 분뇨 중 농경지에서 비료로 사용되는 비율은 90.3%로, 도시는 83.4%이고 시골은 94.5%임
○ 당연히 시골에서 더 높은 수치를 보일 것으로 생각되지만, 도시에서 배출된 분뇨의 83.4%가 농경지에 비료로 사용되는 것은 매우 높은 수치여서, 이로 인한 음용수 오염과 수인성 전염병의 발생 개연성을 떨쳐 버릴 수 없는 상황임
□ 아울러 노동신문, 민주조선 등에 나타난 하수도 관련 기사와 북한의 발명총국, 공업출판사, 김일성종합대학학보, 중앙과학기술통보사에 나타난 하수도 관련 기술기사 및 연구기사를 조사하여 정리하였음
○ 한국이나 여러 선진국에서 활용 및 연구되며 전문성 있는 하수도 기술에 대한 소개를 하고 있으나, 실제적으로 현장에서 얼마나 적용되고 있는지에 대해서는 더 심도 있는 조사가 필요함
Ⅳ. 북한 하수도의 관리
□ 북한 대학의 ‘하수도공학’ 교재에 나타난 오수정화장의 계획시 고려사항, 오수정화장의 구조물 관리방안 및 자료관리방안, 하수도 관리운영의 정보화와 자동화, 분산식 소규모 정화구조물 모듈 기술을 요약해 제시하였음
○ 이를 통해, 북한은 고육지책이긴 하지만 현재의 열악한 상황을 고려할 때 바람직한 분산형 소규모 하수처리시설 모듈 확대보급 정책을 펼치고 있는 것으로 보임
□ Sedlak(2015)과 IWA(2021)에서 제안한 바와 같이 분산형 물관리가 전 세계적으로 미래 도시인프라 발전의 중요한 패러다임 전환의 이슈이며 에너지 효율적인 측면을 강조하고 있긴 함
○ 하지만 농경지에 분뇨를 사용하고 있어 생활환경의 오염, 수인성 전염병 발병 위험, 주민 건강 위협 등 우려를 지울 수 없는 상황임
○ 그럼에도 불구하고 효율적인 분산형 소규모 하수처리 모듈을 보급하면 공공수역의 수질환경 보전, 주민의 건강 보호 등 약간의 성과를 얻을 수는 있을 것임
□ 물관리의 지속가능성과 회복탄력성이 향상되고, 소단위의 물 및 자원순환 체계가 구축 될 수 있도록 시범적인 성공사례를 만드는 시험대가 되길 기대함
Ⅴ. 결론 및 정책 제언
1. 결론
□ 본 연구에서는 그동안 수행된 북한 하수도 관련 원자료를 검토하고 자료들의 신뢰성과 의미를 확인, 재해석하여 제시함으로써 추후 북한 하수도 종합계획의 구상과 수립을 위한 기초로 활용할 수 있도록 하였음
□ 북한 하수도 관련 문헌자료를 심층 분석해 북한 하수도 관리에 대한 시사점을 정리하고자 하였음
2. 정책 제언
□ 북한 하수도에 대해 우리가 알고 있는 것과 모르는 것을 요약하였고, 미래 북한 하수도 시설의 구축 전략을 제안하였음
□ 본 연구는 단기적인 연구로서 단편적인 소기의 성과만을 얻었음. 북한 하수도 종합계획을 구상, 수립하기 위한 데이터 기반을 마련할 수 있는 축적된 연구 성과를 얻을 수 있도록 특화된 연구기관에 장기적으로 지속적인 연구 투자가 이루어지질 기대함

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Ⅰ. Introduction
1. Background
□ After the division of the Korean Peninsula into the South Korea and the North Korea, there is little information released on the North Korea’s internal situation due to its closed policy emphasizing anti-toadyism and independency, and almost no information on the environmental issues.
ㅇ According to international organizations such as the United Nation Environment Program (UNEP), news media, and some academic papers, environmental pollution is a serious problem in the North Korea.
□ In the North Korea, due to a very low standard of living, the generation of household waste is not great except in some areas such as Pyongyang City. It is expected that the environmental impact of industrial waste may be greater than that of household waste.
ㅇ It is expected that the types and characteristics of waste from industrial areas in the North Korea are varied depending on the type of industry. Most waste from industries may have hazardous characteristics.
ㅇ For example, the North Korea produces hazardous substances such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) whose manufacturing and usage are banned all over the world. In addition, since treatment facilities for these substances are not established, they can be the cause of serious pollution in the surrounding environment.
□ While maintaining the hereditary regimes of Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il, and Kim Jong-un, the North Korea continues to suffer from shortages of supplies resulting from severe isolation due to UN sanctions against the country.
ㅇ In order to solve the chronic shortage of supplies in North Korea, waste such as scrap iron, scrap copper, waste paper, and others are collected and recycled by the government based on the concept of self-rehabilitation.
ㅇ At the time of Kim Jong-il, the North Korea society began to recognize environmental issues, and now it is actively emphasizing recycling as a means to secure materials.
ㅇ Entering the era of Kim Jong-un, in 2020, the Recycling Act was adopted to emphasize self-rehabilitation and stipulate recycling.
□ Therefore, this study aims to grasp the basic status and implications of waste management in the North Korea through domestic and foreign news media, reports and academic papers, and publications in the North Korea.
2. Aims and scope
□ The purpose of this study is to analyze the status and implications of waste management in the North Korea through the collection of law and literature information related to waste management.
ㅇ Investigation of the status of waste management based on literature information related to waste management in the North Korea
ㅇ Finding implications and management plans for waste management in the North Korea
□ The main research scope including law and literature collected in this study covers the following four categories.
ㅇ Laws and systems related to waste management in the North Korea
ㅇ Current status of waste classification and waste management in the North Korea presented in the literature.
ㅇ Analysis of waste management and treatment in the North Korea.
ㅇ Implications of waste management in the North Korea and management schemes.
Ⅱ. Laws and Systems on Waste Management in the North Korea
1. Status of laws on waste management in the North Korea
□ In various fields such as politics, military affairs, society, and environment in the North Korea, different characteristics appear depending on the eras of Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il, and Kim Jong-un.
ㅇ During the era of Kim Il-sung (1945-1994), the level of industrial and agricultural production decreased significantly after the Korean War. In 1976, agricultural production was promoted through the Five-point Policy for Nature Reorganization, and environmental problems at that time were not recognized at all in the social development process in the North Korea.
ㅇ During the era of Kim Jong-il (1997-2011), the principle of prioritizing facilities for environmental conservation in the construction of factories and houses was presented in Kim Jong-il’s book, On Strenthening Land Management, recognizing environmental issues in the North Korea.
- After the adoption of the Environmental Protection Act in 1986, various environmental laws were enacted by environmental medium during the era of Kim Jong-il, and several revisions and supplements were carried out.
- In addition, during the March of Suffering in the 1990s, they suffered from a severe shortage of supplies, and to solve this poverty problem, the government demanded that people abide by the principle of self-rehabilitation in their economic life.
ㅇ After entering the era of Kim Jong-un (2012-present), the North Korea is still showing interest in environmental pollution and waste management through Kim Jong-un’s work, On Bringing About a Revolutionary Turn in Land Administration in Line With the Demands for Building a Thriving Socialist Country.
- In order to solve the economic problem that has become serious with the sanctions against the North Korea that persist even during the era of Kim Jong-un, Kim Jong-un is emphasizing the recycling based on the concept of self-rehabilitation. In addition, the Recycling Act was adopted in 2020 to stipulate the directive and responsibility with respect to recycling.
2. Laws on waste management in the North Korea
□ Classification of laws related to the environmental sector in the North Korea
ㅇ It can be divided into 11 areas: Environmental basic, water quality and water resources, marine environment, waste and resources circulation, air quality, soil, chemicals, environmental health, forest and ecosystem, urban management, environmental assessment, and others.
□ Laws on waste management in the North Korea
ㅇ Six laws include regulations on waste management: the Environmental Protection Act, the Waste Treatment Act, the Recycling Act, the Public Hygiene Act, the Urban Beautification Act, and the Pyongyang City Management Act.
3. Systems related to waste in the North Korea
□ In the North Korea, systems related to waste include the 8·3 people’s consumer goods production movement and the government purchases (see Table 2).
ㅇ The 8·3 people’s consumer goods production movement was started to increase the production of consumer goods. This is to use disused materials in institutions and cottage industries to produce consumer goods, but the quality of the produced consumer goods is very low.
ㅇ The major reasons for government purchases are to meet the demand for food and to secure raw materials for the manufacturing of industrial products. In order to secure more raw materials, disused materials such as scrap iron, scrap copper, and others are included as target items.
Ⅲ. Classification and Management of Waste in the North Korea and Literature Review
1. Classification of waste in the North Korea
□ Classification of waste under the Waste Treatment Act
ㅇ Waste is classified into: general waste, toxic waste, and radioactive waste.
ㅇ However, a specific list of waste has not been established, and the concept of the sources of waste is not reflected.
□ Various terminologies related to waste are used in laws and the news media such as the Rodong Sinmun, academic journals, and other publications.
□ TTherefore, the classification of waste in the North Korea was inferred from the contexts used in literature and the testimony of defectors from the North Korea.
ㅇ The resulting waste classification system of the North Korea is based on the evidence presented in < Table 3 >.
2. Status of waste generation and treatment in the North Korea
□ Information on the national status of waste generation and treatment of the North Korea is not found, the scope is limited to Pyongyang City, and the survey period is limited to 2008 - 2010.
□ Status of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generation and its treatment
ㅇ In Pyongyang City, about 580,000 to 614,000 tons of MSW was generated annually, and coal ash accounted for 64 - 68% of the total MSW, which is because coal is used as an energy source in households.
ㅇ According to a recent literature, 69% of MSW was reused and recycled, 28.7% was landfilled, and 2.3% was incinerated.
ㅇ In addition, the treatment of MSW differs between the metropolitan area and the rural area.
- In Pyongyang City and some metropolitan areas, ash is used as construction material, and organic waste is mixed with ash and used as fertilizer.
- In particular, mixing ash with organic waste is to meet the amount of fertilizer allocated by the government.
- In rural areas, the amount of MSW is very small, because most of MSW is reused due to a lack of materials necessary for daily life.
□ Status of Industrial Solid Waste (ISW) generation and its treatment
ㅇ About 564,000 tons of ISW was generated annually in Pyongyang City, and coal ash accounted for 55% of the total ISW, which is due to the use of coal in two power plants in Pyongyang City.
ㅇ For ISW treatment, reuse and recycling accounted for the highest at 76.3%, followed by landfill at 23.7% and incineration at 0.0%.
□ In the treatment of MSW and ISW, the portion of reuse and recycling is high, so it can be seen that the management level is high from a quantitative perspective. However, considering the reports of international organization and the testimonies of defectors from the North Korea, the actual level of waste management is estimated to be very low.
□ Contamination due to inadequate treatment and management of waste
ㅇ As to the status of pollution due to treatment and management of waste, UNEP (2012) presented information on heavy metal content in urban waste, soil contamination by waste treatment, and soil contamination around some metal refineries and mines.
ㅇ Among the heavy metals in urban waste, the amounts of arsenic, lead, and zinc exceed the standard. Organic substances and sewage sludge among all types of urban waste are recycled by composting, so there is concern about soil and ground water contamination by arsenic, lead, and zinc.
ㅇ Information on soil contamination due to waste treatment was presented in 2005 and 2009. Although it did not exceed the standard limits of heavy metals, the amount of heavy metal in soils tends to increase and may affect the environment in the near future.
ㅇ The measured values of cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and lead in soil around metal refineries and mines exceed the standard limits. It is estimated that slag or sludge from wastewater treatment is not properly managed.
Ⅳ. Analysis of Waste Management in the North Korea
□ The waste management in North Korea was analyzed according to five categories: status of recycling promotion, MSW management, ISW management, waste in the mining sector, and the management of imported waste.
□ Status of recycling promotion
ㅇ In the North Korea, the importance of government purchases is emphasized while recycling is promoted, and the duty of each household to collect disused materials such as scrap iron, scrap copper, waste paper, and others increased by about 20% in 2020 compared to 2018. This imposed a heavy burden on each household.
ㅇ In addition, successful cases of recycling in the North Korea are being advertised. In most cases, plastic waste was recycled to manufacture products such as paint and shoe soles and construction materials. These recycling technologies are not advanced technologies which are at the low and basic level.
□ MSW management
ㅇ In some places in the North Korea, MSW is burned in open fields because there is a lack of means to transport MSW.
ㅇ Considering that the packaging waste that entered the ocean in the North Korea was discovered on Yeonpyeong Island in South Korea, the capacity of waste treatment facilities is low in the North Korea.
□ ISW management
ㅇ ISW management is a very important matter to show the overall environmental pollution in the North Korea because the hazardous characteristics of ISW are not considered in the industrial sector.
ㅇ Among various industries in the North Korea, the chemical industries located in Nampo and Sunchon manufacture produced persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as DDT and PCBs.
ㅇ In particular, discarded PCBs flows into residential areas and production facilities, affecting the health of residents and workers.
□ Waste in the mining sector
ㅇ Coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and non-metal mining is carried out in the North Korea. However, overburden piles, waste rock, and leachate from tailing storage facilities are mismanaged and flowing into nearby rivers, resulting in severe water pollution.
□ Management of imported waste
ㅇ With respect to imported waste in the North Korea, the issue of environmental pollution caused by the imported waste has been raised by the news media since the 1990s.
ㅇ Due to a lack of transportation means in the North Korea, in particular, imported waste is left at ports, becoming a source of pollution in the marine environment.
ㅇ Nevertheless, waste is continuously imported to earn income in foreign currency.
Ⅴ. Implications of Waste Management in the North Korea and Management Schemes
□ From the result of the analysis on waste management in the North Korea, the implications and a waste management plan were examined according to six categories.
□ First, there is a need for a clear classification and scope of waste.
ㅇ Due to the insufficient classification and scope of waste, the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders are unclear.
ㅇ Therefore, it is desirable to make it easy to classify and identify types of waste by setting detailed types and assigning a code number.
□ Second, it is necessary to continuously prepare statistical data on the generation and treatment of waste.
ㅇ Numerical information on the generation and treatment of waste in the North Korea is limited to that from the period of 2008 - 2010 for Pyongyang City. With limited information of waste, it is difficult to understand the types and the characteristics of waste.
ㅇ Therefore, the range of statistics for waste collection, treatment, and recycling should be expanded to cover the entire nation and the statistical data for waste management should be continuously accumulated.
□ Third, it is necessary to systematically manage hazardous waste taking into account the management priority of industrial areas.
ㅇ There is little information about waste in industrial areas, so there is a limit to accurate evaluation. When POPs such as DDT and PCBs are discarded, proper management can not be carried out without information.
ㅇ In the future, it may be necessary to perform appropriate management for all types of waste according to the international standards.
ㅇ However, it is difficult for the North Korea to meet international standards, so it is necessary to set priorities for waste management according to the toxicity and the amount of waste.
□ Fourth, the basic management of waste in mining activities is required.
ㅇ Due to insufficient management of mine waste, mine waste such as tailings and overburden enters rivers and cause pollution and damage to surrounding agricultural areas, leading to human health problems.
ㅇ Therefore, it is necessary to set priorities for the proper management of mining waste in the North Korea and establish a basic management plan that can be continuously implemented.
□ Fifth, it is necessary to develop systematic recycling technologies.
ㅇ The North Korea’s recycling technologies are mainly basic technologies such as composting and block manufacturing.
ㅇ In order to improve the quality of recycling in the North Korea, systematic and continuous technology development should be carried out based on the cooperation with the advanced countries.
□ Sixth, it is necessary to prepare regulations for the management of imported waste.
ㅇ Although the North Korea is a signatory to the Basel Convention, waste imported for the purpose of earning income in foreign currency is left at ports without any management. Hence, it is necessary to clearly establish regulation for the management of imported waste.
Ⅵ. Conclusion and Suggestion
□ Conclusion
ㅇ Waste management regulation in six laws were analyzed: Environmental Protection Act, Waste Treatment Act, Recycling Act, Public Hygiene Act, Urban Beautification Act, Pyongyang City Management Act.
ㅇ In the North Korea, the 8·3 people’s consumer goods production movement and government purchases related to the reuse and recycling of waste were carried out. In 2020, the Recycling Act was adopted to force and promote recycling through self-rehabilitation.
ㅇ In waste classification, the detailed types of waste were not set, and the generation source was not reflected.
ㅇ In Pyongyang City, about 580,000 to 614,000 tons of MSW was generated annually according to the literature in 2018 and 2019, and 69% of MSW was recycled, 28.7% was landfilled, and 2.3% was incinerated.
ㅇ In Pyongyang City, about 564,000 tons of ISW was generated annually, and coal ash accounted for the largest amount of total ISW.
ㅇ In the North Korea, PCBs and DDT are continuously manufactured and used, and they can leak and flow into the factories and residential areas, adversely affecting the health of workers and people. Also, the heavy metal content such as arsenic, lead, and mercury was increasing in the soil near factories and metal refineries due to insufficient waste management capabilities.
ㅇ The following six implications and management plans were drawn up for the management of waste in the North Korea: ① clear classification and scope of waste, ② continuous accumulation of statistical data on the generation and treatment of waste, ③ hazardous waste management in consideration of the management priority of toxicity and amount in industrial areas, ④ need for basic management of mining waste, ⑤ systematic development of diverse recycling technologies, and ⑥ the establishment of regulations on the management of imported waste management.
□ nterpretations and assumptions regarding waste management in the North Korea based on available information
ㅇ Interpretations of collected information
- Some environmental laws of the North Korea can be found in the Unification Legislation Database, but the latest information cannot be collected.
- Documented information on the status of waste generation and treatment in the North Korea is mainly presented in the UNEP (2012) report.
- Through the media in the North Korea, such as the Rodong Sinmun, and domestic and foreign media, the progress of recycling and the problem of imported waste were identified.
ㅇ Assumption
- Documented information on the waste management in the North Korea is limited to some regions and time periods.
- Even though reuse and recycling are emphasized in the regulation, it is hard to understand the level of recycling technologies with the existing information of waste management.
- International cooperation can be a way to conduct more extensive research on waste management and recycling in the future.