This study is conducted to inquire into the structure and thoughts on the theory of intermixture of Zen-Buddhism, Taoism and Neo-Confucianism that the two major figures of Zen-Buddhism and Taoism exerted in the early years of the North-Song Dynasty, China and their ultimate objectives. These two figures are called Chi Sung and Zhang Bo-duan. Their life was in striking contrast to another. Chi Sung left home when he was young and lived his whole life in the mountain as a zen-monk and a learned priest. On the other hand, Zhang Bo-duan lost interest in the way into the government service when he was young and wandered about from place to place as an adviser to the government official for his whole life seeking after truth in his mundane life. Chi Sung showed keen interest in the Anti-Buddhism practiced in the mundane world and also in the theory of patriarchal genealogy of Zen-Buddhism, while trying to destruct the Anti-Buddhism and straighten the patriarchal genealogy. On the other hand, Zhang Bo-duan, although he was living in the mundane world, he always had heart's desire to seek after the method(principle) of alchemy in Taoism. Even after he perceived truth, he confuted people stating that he was at the state of supra-mundane and he did not need to forsake the world.
These two contrastive figures had one thing in common that both had asserted the three religions to be unified into one. However, their theory on intermixture of three religions was obviously different from another. Chi Sung mainly made comparisons between Confucianism and Buddhism and emphasized that Buddhism was superior to Confucianism although they have many things in common in the fundamental teachings. Zhang Bo-duan stated that Taoism and Zen-Buddhism is about training oneself based on one's fate and inner nature respectively and he attained Taoist state transcending those in his theory on neidan(internal alchemy).
On such basic foundation, this study is conducted to obtain two major objectives. First, it is to exactly understand what is intermixture of three religions that they asserted. Second, it is to find out their ultimate objectives in asserting the unification of three religions. In this study we will look into the fact that with the second objective aforementioned, Chi Sung established a thought on Pro-Buddhism and Zhang Bo-duan used it as a way to establish a thought on neidan(internal alchemy). And as a subordinate matter, by partially clarifying that three religions in the public thought at the time had already been commonly using the generalized philosophical notions, we will also be able to understand that the foundation was being made for the formation of Neo-Confucianism.
It can be said that the intermixture and exclusion of the three religions - Confucianism that has originated in the traditional culture of China and later became the administration ideology of the state; Taoism that has naturally originated in the people in the latter Han Dynasty; and Buddhism which has originated from India and settled in China - are inevitable. After Buddhism is introduced in China, since the period of 'Language of Buddhism' during which the doctrine is explained by the thoughts and notion of Taoism, it was inevitable that congruence or similarity would be asserted between Buddhism and Taoism. And because of that, they had to be competitive in excluding one another and contending for superiority in order to display their identity.
In this study, we have looked into the characteristics of the two people who have asserted the intermixture of three religions in the historical background, namely the early years of the North-Song Dynasty. At that time, when Chi Sung and Zhang Bo-duan were active, countless scholars were produced because the freedom of knowledge and ideology were guaranteed. While the three religions were flourishing individually, they at the same time showed strong tendency to exclude each other or to fuse into one. At that time, each of those two people who held the position representing Zen-Buddhism and theory of neidan Taoism(internal alchemy) respectively, unfolded their thought. They had common factors with which they could develop the theory on intermixture of three religions at the similar time. Their birth place or residence was both Zhejiang Province where it showed strong propensity for intermixture of three religions centering around Zen-Buddhism.
Their theories on intermixture of three religions have both common features and differences. The biggest thing in common is that they asserted intermixture to be exerted in a way that each of the three religions based on their own superiority, win over other religions. Chi Sung even included Taoism into the scope of Confucianism and condensed the problem into two, namely Confucianism and Buddhism but in the end he asserted the superiority of Buddhism. For Zhang Bo-duan, he regarded the teachings of Confucianism as inferior to that of Taoism or Buddhism. Instead, he placed Zen-Buddhism on top of it and said his theory of neidan Taoism(internal alchemy) is superior to all of those religions.
The second thing they have in common is that both of their intermixtures are based on the theory of role assignment. Chi Sung said that Confucianism should take part in teaching of a rule over people, Buddhism in a rule over minds to be of benefit to enlightenment of the world. Zhang Bo-duan defined Confucianism as the foundation of ethical teachings for cultivating the moral nature which is the precondition for discipline(training). He placed Taoisim on Ming-Gong(exertion in fate) and Zen-Buddhism on Xing-Gong(exertion in inner nature) and said that the state of the highest is absolute boundary of Taoism. Both of them are understanding Confucianism in the modern ethical way.
Third, we can see them both referring to 'Inner nature' and 'Qi(energy)' in the notion of Neo-Confucianism. Chi Sung, in his understanding of Confucianism, was pioneering in referring to 'Inner nature' and 'Qi(energy)' in the notion of Neo-Confucianism, which can be seen in the well-established Neo-Confucianism in later ages. The central notion of neidan(internal alchemy) for Zhang Bo-duan was Qi(energy). Qi was being used as a universal concept then and it had no difference with that of Neo-Confucianism. Also, the concept of its 'Inner nature' had a thread of connection with that of Neo-Confucianism.
On the other hand, their theory on intermixture of three religions had few radical differences. First, their background for giving such assertion was different from each other. Since the very beginning, Chi Sung had political intention when he asserted intermixture of three religions. He had desire to exert religious influence through calming down the thoughts on anti-buddhism suggested by Confucian scholars at that time and displaying the superiority of Buddhism. On the contrary, Zhang Bo-duan had a pure intention that he found it necessary for his personal discipline(training) and theoretical structure. Second, Chi Sung asserted the intermixture of Confucianism and Buddhism whereas Zhang Bo-duan asserted the intermixture of Taoism and Buddhism. Third, their way of asserting the intermixture differed from each other. Since the beginning, Chi Sung has written on the need of the intermixture of three religions on purpose. Zhang Bo-duan turned the part of book contents on the intermixture into various forms of sentences. Fourth, Chi Sung said 'Mean' and 'Moderation' are the essence of Confucianism and Buddhism. He said that they are the same doctrines but the only difference is in their teaching. However, Zhang Bo-duan divided Taoism, Zen-Buddhism and neidan Taoism(internal alchemy) into different spheres and presented that they differ in their main purport.
Now, let us look into the structure of their intermixture of three religions. Chi Sung found the commonness of the three religions in 'Sagehood'. Sages are called as they are because they have one united heart and it is a heart wishing the people in the world to be good. Three religions are different from one another because the 'Trace of sage' is different. The difference in trace refers to their way of teaching. Furthermore, he divided Confucianism and Buddhism by 'a rule over people' and 'a rule over mind' and while assigning the roles accordingly, he condensed the problem into two, namely Confucianism and Buddhism and asserted the theory of unifying Confucianism and Buddhism. He presented The Five Precepts and The Ten Wholesome Actions as the teachings of sage for secular people and asserted these are the same with The Five Virtues of Confucianism. He also said that it would be meaningless to draw a line between China and barbarian(foreign) countries and rejected sinocentrism.
In terms of the problems in relation with filial piety, he attempted to solve them with the logic of implication. He asserted that the filial piety referred in Confucianism is eventually included in the scope of 'Great Devotion' referred in Buddhism. He solves the problem based on his assertion that it might be important to support one's parents in person in a Confucian way, but it is more important to lead one's parents to attain the state of enlightenment and get rid of Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation.
Chi Sung's understanding in Confucianism is very excellent looking at it at certain angle. While his view in the radical understanding of Confucianism was different from other Confucian scholars, he had pioneering view in the notions of Neo-Confucianism.
The theory on intermixture of three religions by Zhang Bo-duan, who is known as a figure that has established the structure of theory on neidan of Taoism(internal alchemy) said that the purposes of the teachings in Buddhism and Taoism is to get rid of Samsara, the cycle of reincarnation. He pointed out that Confucianism concentrates in teaching worldly 'Conditioned dharma' that puts importance on ethics. He said, however, the essence of their teaching is all about returning back to 'One' which means their ultimate destination is identical to one another. He also emphasized the need of human's ordinary ethics in Taoism and searched for it in the ethics of Confucianism. He presented the theory on neidan discipline(training) that disciplin(training) can only begin with premise of ethics and morality. Next, one should seek after one's fate and cultivate one's inner nature before attaining the final state of the highest.
Furthermore, he is clearly stating that his writings legitimately has inherited the dhyana of Bodhidharma and the sixth founder of Chines Zen-Buddhism Hui Neng, which means he has inherited the spirit of Southern Zen Sect. Now for him, Zen-Buddhism was no different from Taoism that practices the neidan discipline.
The brief summary of Pro-Buddhism of Chi Sung and neidan thoughts of Zhang Bo-duan is as follows. Chi Sung had largely two logics for supporting Buddhism. First, Buddhism benefits the world in its own way. Second, Confucianism and Buddhism had the structure of teaching that had a thread of connection with each other. On such premise, his thought on Pro-Buddhism starts from the counter argument against the theory of Anti-Buddhism by Han Yu. Zhang Bo-duan criticized the book of Han Yu item by item based on through analysis. Most of his criticism was based on traditional contents and methods and nothing special. However, him pointing out that what sages imparted and inherited were moderation and Hwang-Ji and not benevolence and righteousness while criticizing Hun Yu's theory of orthodoxy, is an important view that shows the difference in the radical understanding of Confucianism.
On the other hand, on the premise that Buddhism is superior to any other scholarships, he has mentioned his point of view that Buddhism is superior to Confucianism throughout his writings and it can be said that this is the substantial essence of this theory on Pro-Buddhism. To him, the theory on intermixture of Confucianism and Buddhism was rather one of the skillful means.
In relation with patriarchal genealogy of Zen-Buddhism, he said one should find zen and doctrinal teaching in the teachings of Sakyamuni and that one should regard zen as the purpose of sect and regard the person who perceived it as patriarch. Therefore patriarch shall be the example and sect shall be the target. However, problems lied in including the seven Buddhas who existed prior to Sakyamuni and the antagonism between theory of extinction in 24th generations and theory of continuity in 28th generations of Indian patriarchal genealogy . For these problems, he verified the theory on 28th generations referring to various Sutras. And to his wish, these writings were granted with royal permission to be included in The complete collection of Buddist Sutras, Laws and Treatises.
First of all, Zhang Bo-duan's thought on neidan recognized that Yin Fu Ching and Tao Te Ching are the best scripture of neidan discipline(training) taking their origin into consideration. He also emphasized that those who became a Taoist hermits with supernatural powers had all regarded these scriptures as the fundamentals. Other than these two scriptures, the book that Zhang Bo-duan valued in his theocratical structure was Ju Eak Cham Doung Gea. A part of his Wu Chen Pien whereby he elaborated the neidan theory in combination with the method(principle) of The Book of Changes, was borrowed from Ju Eak Cham Doung Gea after all.
The origin of Zhang Bo-duan's method(principle) of alchemy seems to inherit the Chen Tuan's method of neidan(internal alchemy). The book of Chen Tuan contains 81 chapters and most of it is written in poetic form. It has a thread of connection with Zhang Bo-duan's book which also consists of 81 poems. It is also related to the fact that Tao Te Ching contains 81 chapters.
The most distinctive feature of Zhang Bo-duan's method of alchemy is that it denies most of the Taoist discipline method. The only method is the Gold Alchemy and as far as its discipline(training) method is concerned, it is difficult to understand the record of writing(due to its ambiguity) so the only way is to be initiated in magic words of the un-worldly man(man of virtue). The most important points, the times and the adjustment of dynamics, for neidan discipline(training) are never mentioned in any of the scriptures. It can only be initiated through the un-worldly man's magic words. He said that therefore, the success of the discipline can never be attained without meeting a hermit.
According to him, neidan is the elixir of life, precious treasure that each one of us has. His phrase 'The elixir of life that each one of us has' refers to the 'Innate vigor' which is the fundamental medication, namely the 'Fundamental essence' gathered from human's kidney and it is necessary for the discipline. Furthermore, it also implies that Huo Hou(the times and the adjustment of dynamics) of Four Shapes necessary for forming the alchemy and Dan Jeon(the lower abdomen), the area that one cultivate alchemy are all provided in our body. Here, one more important thing is 'Moral conduct'. A man with good moral conduct can only find, gather and even cultivate 'Inner vigor'. Therefore, we can see that the hermit that he has mentioned here is not someone outside the scope of ethics and morality.
His theory on neidan(internal alchemy) is still using the terms of external alchemy. His book in which the theory of neidan is presented based on the theory of Material essence, Energy and Mind, surprisingly, these words almost never appear. Also, we can see that 'Qi(energy)' that joins all of those into one concept, was already being used in the three religions at that time as a universal meaning.
There are few influences that Chi Sung has on the later generation. First, he had quieted down Anti-Buddhism among illustrious officials centering around Ou Yang-xiu and rather created an opportunity for them to have favorable opinions about Buddhism which diffused the culture of Buddhism of Geosa(scholar un-entering the priesthood). Second, he has put an end to the controversies about patriarchal genealogy, that have been initiated within the Buddhist community. Third, the emperor granted him a title of 'Myung Gyo' and his name resounded throughout the land but his trace could almost never be found. Fourth, he has contributed in helping Zen-Buddhism that asserted 'Tacit understanding' and 'State of not replying with letters' to secure its position as the ultimate winner in the history of Chinese Buddhism, paradoxically, through 'letters'.
The remarkable thing in Zhang Bo-duan's life is the fact that he'd never left the mundane world while seeking after truth for all his life. Next, after perceiving a truth in his 80s, he made a record of his secrets and initiated his disciple into the principle(method) of neidan. For Zhang Bo-duan's writing which is not confirmed if it is true or false, this study, by providing numbers of grounds of an argument, has verified that it is unlikely that Guem Dan Sa Baek Ja or Cheung Hwa Bi Mun belong to Zhang Bo-duan but they may be forgeries created by the later generations
However, looking into the influence that Zhang Bo-duan's thought on neidan (internal alchemy) has made to the later generation, although there were many sects in the genealogy of Southern patriarch but Cheong Su Sect has the best clarity in terms of traditional genealogy whereas, the traditionality of Zhang Bo-duan's thought on neidan cannot not be found here. However in this paper, we assume that since the time of Chen Nam, Cheong Su Sect used Principle of Thunder and took a post in the royal court deviating from the tradition where they used to practice the principle(method) of alchemy and moved to the mountain to form the shape of religious body, they deviated from the original principle of alchemy of Zhang Bo-duan. While his principle of alchemy transmuted, his reputation may have been used as the authority of their organization. Thus, it can be said that although the thought on neidan has laid a groundwork for the longevity, it has been distorted throughout the history.
The investigation into how the thought of Chi Sung has been inherited and evaluated by the later generation and how the thought of Zhang Bo-duan's has been distorted in the later generation would be left as an assignment.