김정희 가문인 경주김씨 大橋金門은 영조 연간에 반탕평세력으로 활동하였다. 이후 김정희가 속한 김한신계는 영조의 부마집안이 된 뒤로는 중도성향을 보이다가 正祖 연간에 탕평세력으로 활동하였고 京華士族화 되었다. 그리고 순조 연간 초에는 시파로 활동하였다. 이러한 김한신계의 정치적 입장 및 활동과 함께 친부 김노경이 당대 장서가였다는 김정희 家의 학문적 환경은 김정희에게 경화학계의 사상과 학예를 익히게끔 하여, 자연스럽게 청의 학예경향에 관심을 가지게 하였으며, 연행을 하게 되는 환경을 조성해 주었다.
정조 연간에는 청대 건가 연간의 학예 경향이 유입되고 있었는데, 주로 浙西지역이 중심이 된 부류와 북경의 翁方綱이 중심이 된 부류의 경향이다. 본 논문에서는 전자를 浙西 중심의 학예교류망으로, 후자를 翁方綱 중심의 학예교류망으로 지칭하였다. 이러한 청대의 두 부류가 이끈 학문과 문학은 조선 성리학 및 고문과 갈등을 일으키게 되었다. 이로써 정조 연간에는 조선 성리학에 대한 계승과 변화라는 상반된 견해가 발생하였고 이는 곧 학문과 예술에서 漢宋절충론의 논의를 불러왔다. 그럼에도 당시는 주자학과 醇正한 古文이 우위를 점하고 있었다. 김정희는 북학파와 달리 정조 연간의 주된 흐름과 새로운 청의 경향을 절충하였다.
한편 서화분야에서는 실경산수화가 지속되는 가운데 董其昌 같은 명말 청초의 서화풍이 성행하였으며, 청대의 서화 경향이 유입되고 있었다. 대체로 두 회화경향은 학문과 문학분야의 경우만큼 상반된 성격을 갖고 있지 않았기에 드러날 정도의 갈등이 존재하지 않았다. 그리고 이때에는 사군자의 상징성이 부각되어 단란이 유행하였다.
김정희는 그의 초기 회화에서 이러한 정조연간의 회화 경향을 잇음이 확인된다. 즉, 김정희가 보여준 경향은 정조 연간의 경향과 상치되는 것이 아니었다. 그러므로 김정희는 기존의 회화 경향을 이으면서도 새로운 회화의 경향이 보합되는 방향을 제시할 수 있었다. 이는 그가 제주 해배시기에 정립한 ‘황한소경도’와 ‘추사란’이다. 그렇다면 청대의 회화경향이 언제부터 조선에 유입되었으며 김정희가 어떻게 인지하였는가를 파악할 필요가 생긴다.
본 논문에서 김정희파의 한중회화교류를 세 부분으로 구분하였다. 즉, 김정희 전배, 김정희를 포함한 일가와 문우, 그리고 김정희의 문하이다.
김정희에게 지적 자산을 제공한
前輩의 문인은 노론이 주를 이루는 정조대에 형성된 탕평세력이었다. 주요 인물은 북학파인 홍대용 · 박지원 · 박제가 · 유득공 · 이덕무와 조수삼 및 강세황이다. 박제가를 포함한 이들 전배 중에 현재까지 김정희의 스승에 해당되는 문인은 확인되지 않았다. 김정희에게 있어서 스승은 정조 연간에 조성된 경화지역의 학예 경향이라고 할 수 있다. 특히 北學派는 청대 학예와 회화의 소개를, 강세황은 당시의 서화 경향을 주도하였다. 김정희가 이를 받아들이는 경로는 박제가의 경우처럼 직접적인 교유에 의한 경우도 있으나 그들의 후손들과 교유하면서 이루어진 측면 역시 간과할 수 없다. 이렇게 김정희가 수용한 정조 연간의 회화 경향은 그의 회화 및 회화 경향의 기저에 자리 잡았다.
김정희의 전배는 연행 등을 통해 浙西 혹은 翁方綱 중심의 학예교류망 내의 문사와 교유하면서 회화교류를 하였다. 이를 통해 吳派 등의 明代 遺風을 간직한 화풍, 曾鯨의 인물화풍, 揚州畵派, 婁東畵派, 指頭畫法, 蘇軾과 관련된 서화를 조선에 소개하였다. 그러나 정작 북학파가 자신들이 소개한 청 회화를 바라보는 관점은 상당히 18세기 조선의 회화경향에 근거를 두고 있다. 즉, 그들의 한중회화교류는 청의 회화 경향에 대한 충분한 이해에 기초하지 않았던 것이다. 오히려 그들은 교유 속에 생성된 작품들을 청 문인과 맺었던 지교의 상징물이라는 측면으로만 판단하는 경향이 강하였다. 그러면서 조금씩 청대 회화 경향을 인식해 갔으며 김정희일가와 문우의 한중회화교류가 시작되는 기반을 마련해주었다.
김정희일가와 문우는 전배보다 훨씬 蔚興한 한중회화교류를 전개하였다. 그들은 내부적으로 북학파 중에서 연암파를 이었으며, 외부적으로는 절서와 翁方綱 중심 학예교류망 내의 문사들과 교유하였는데, 좀 더 翁方綱 중심의 교류망 속 문사들과 친교하는 경향을 보였다.
김정희는 북학파와 달리 이미 연행이전부터 청의 학예 경향을 숙지하고 있었다 그리고 그는 상당한 목적과 의도를 품고 연행하였다. 그래서 김정희는 翁方綱과 교유를 갖고자 노력하였고 이로써 이루어진 두 문사의 교유는 19세기 초의 조선 서화계에 상당한 반향을 일으켰다.
김정희 일가와 문우의 한중회화교류에는 북학파가 소개한 청의 회화 경향을 지속하면서도, 朱鶴年 등의 서옥도류 소개, 吳嵩梁과 교유로 인한 梅龕圖 형식의 산수화 발생, 양주화파 등의 사군자화풍 수용, 여성화가 작품의 유입이라는 새로운 측면이 보인다. 그리고 소식을 비롯한 제현화상이 수용되었는데, ‘崇蘇熱’이라는 문화 현상에 수반된 것이다. 그리고 청조 문사와 소조를 교환하는 가운데 서로를 소식의 모습에 비교하였는데, 이는 이후에 일어날 蘇軾像와 小照의 조형적 결합을 예고하였다.
한편 이들의 교유는 북학파와는 달리 회화교환이 눈에 띄게 증가하였다. 김정희, 申緯, 洪顯周는 화가로서 청 문사의 그림 부탁에 응하였다. 그리고 조희룡 등의 작품을 북경에 소개하는 등, 동등할 정도의 한중회화교류를 하였다. 이는 한중회화교류의 정점이라고 할 수 있다.
김정희와 문우들은 자신들이 행한 한중회화교류의 성과를 화론과 회화에 적용하였는데, 특히 김정희가 주도하였다. 김정희는 翁方綱 詩論의 구도를 화론에 적용하였다. 그리고 청대화론을 수용하여 學畵과정을 宗祖, 祖印, 嫡傳이라는 단계의 門徑論을 정립하였다. 즉, 산수화에서는 당송대 王維 등의 화가가 종조라면 黃公望과 倪瓚을 조인이며, 董其昌, 四王畵派, 累東畵派 등은 적전이다. 묵란화에서는 鄭思肖가 종조라면 趙孟頫가 조인에 해당되고, 명청대의 陳元素와 鄭燮은 적전에 포함되는 인물이다. 그리고 各論에서는 청대 화론을 수용하여 산수화에서 枯筆淡墨과 積墨을, 묵란화에서 三傳法과 左筆法이라는 필묵론을 주요 화론으로 삼았다. 물론 그는 18세기 후반에 성립된 문인화관을 자신의 화론상 기저에 놓고 있었다.
김정희일가와 문우는 북학파와는 비교가 되지 않을 정도로 다양한 畵目과 많은 회화를 조선에 유입시켰다. 그렇지만 상당히 조선내의 경향에 기초하여 청의 회화 경향을 받아들였다. 김정희는 산수화에서 소슬한 정경을 표현한 그림을 선호하였는데, 이를 ‘黃寒小景圖’로 정의할 수 있다. 이는 18세기 조선의 화단에 성행하였던 문인화에 기초하면서 절서지역 문인화의 구성과 사왕화풍의 필묵법을 가미한 유형이다.
김정희가 청대 회화 경향을 가장 적극적으로 수용한 화목은 묵란화이다. 그는 연행 직후부터 翁方綱의 벗인 錢載의 묵란화에 애착을 보였으며 1830년대에는 鄭燮 등의 양주화파의 작품을 수장하고자 지속적으로 노력하였다. 그는 정조 연간의 묵란 형식인 단란에 이러한 성과를 적용하여 “秋史蘭”이라는 自家蘭法을 성립시켰다.
김정희의 산수화와 묵란화법은 그의 문우인 김유근과 권돈인에게 영향을 주었다. 그들은 김정희의 평생 지우였으며 회화경향을 공유하였으므로 이들을 추사화파의 일원으로 구분할 수 있다.
김정희 일가와 문우가 남긴 한중회화교류의 성과는 김정희의 제자인 이상적과 그의 직제자이자 김정희의 말년 제자인 오경석과 김석준이 한중회화교류를 하는데 기초가 되었다.
김정희문하의 한중회화교류는 다양성 측면에서 유래가 없을 정도이다. 그들은 추사 문하로서 김정희의 한중회화교류의 경향을 계승하면서도 전방위적인 회화교류를 하였다. 그렇지만 그 교류는 자신들의 회화적 성향에 기인하기 보다는 역관이라는 신분으로 다양한 청 문사들과 교유를 하였기 때문에 발생된 측면이 강하다.
그들이 만난 청의 문사들은 여전히 절서지역과 翁方綱이 중심된 교류망내의 문사가 주류를 이루고 있다. 그렇지만 후반으로 갈수록 그 교류망내에 속하지 않은 문사들과도 교유하였는데, 특히 오경석은 후자의 문사들과 자주 어울렸다. 그 이유는 아편 전쟁과 중영전쟁 등으로 중국이 식민지화되어가는 상황과 관련된다. 지역과 인맥 관계로 맺어진 학예교류망은 전통적 질서의 붕괴 속에서 효과적인 네트워크가 아니었다. 그 자리에는 다양한 지역 출신들로 구성되며 절서지역과 翁方綱의 후계 문인들의 일부가 합류한 양무파이다.
이상적은 스승의 회화교류를 계승하면서 새로운 청대의 화풍을 조선에 유입시켰다. 우선 그는 화려하고 감각적인 청대 閑談圖류와 雅會圖류를 조선에 소개하였다. 그 대부분은 吳儁이라는 화가의 작품이다. 한편 이상적은 청대 문인화가로 병칭되며 상해화단 관련된 湯貽汾과 戴熙 등의 화가와 墨緣을 갖거나 작품의 실견하였으며, 程庭鷺와 程祖慶 같은 松壺畵派와 교유, 怪石화가인 周棠과 교유, 여성화가 작품의 유입 등, 그는 청대의 여러 화풍을 조선에 소개하는 첨병같은 역할을 하였다. 그리고 소식상 관련 판본류와 위본류를 소개하여 김정희파를 중심으로 소식상이 제작되는데 일조하였다.
이상적은 화가가 아니었으므로 청 화가들과는 주로 서예 교환을 하였다. 그는 이와중에 조선 화가의 작품을 청에 소개하였는데, 특히 김정희 작품의 소개는 북경의 청 문사들이 김정희를 경모하는데 기여하였다.
오경석과 김석준은 김정희의 말년제자였기에 스승의 영향이 강하게 나타나지 않는다. 그들은 程祖慶 및 孔憲彛 등과 회화교류를 하는 등, 이상적이 만난 청 문사들과 지속적으로 교유하였고, 한편으로는 양무파 등과 새롭게 교유하는데 주로 오경석에 해당된다. 오경석의 한중회화교류에서는 劉銓福이나 張世準같은 양무파와 회화교류, 상해화단에서 활동한 화가들과 첫 교유를 특징으로 꼽을 수 있다. 또한 그는 화가였기에 청 문사나 화가들과 회화 교환을 하였으며 자신이 그린 묵매화와 산수화를 선물하였다. 특히 그의 매화 그림은 청 문사들이 임모하였으며 張世準의 매화화풍에 영향을 주었다. 이 현상은 김정희 전배부터 있어왔던 조선회화의 소개와 임모를 넘어 화풍을 수용한 것으로, 동등하리만치 이어져 온 한중회화교류의 성과를 보여주는 예가 된다.
오경석은 상당히 청대 회화 경향을 숙지하였고 이를 적극적으로 수용하는 자세를 보였다. 그는 청에서 가장 성행한 사왕화풍을 수용하고자 하였고 나아가 당시에 활동한 청 화가의 작품 매입에 적극적이었다. 그의 성향과 행동은 이후 개화기 화단에 청대 사왕화풍을 비롯한 상해화단의 회화경향이 급속도로 유입되는 현상에 일조하였다.
이렇게 추사 문하에 의해 많고도 다양한 청의 회화 경향이 조선에 소개되었으나 정작 당시 화단은 상당히 무던한 반응을 보였다. 왜냐하면 이들이 활동하였을 1850년대는 이른바 김정희의 영향이 강하였던 시기이기 때문이다.
김정희파의 한중회화교류 성과와 김정희와 문우가 펼친 화론과 회화는 19세기 후반에 변화를 가져왔다. 그 변화 중에 추사화파가 개창되었다는 점은 주목해야 한다. 현재까지 추사화파에 속한 화가는 허련, 조희룡, 전기, 유재소, 이하응이다. 이들이 추사화파가 된 시기는 차이가 나지만 1850년대에는 모두 추사화파로 활동하며 당시 화단을 움직였다. 그들은 김정희가 제주 해배 직후에 제시한 ‘황한소경도’와 ‘추사란’에 기초한 작품을 제작하였으며 방완당산수화를 남기기도 하였다.
더군다나 이 시기는 이른바 ‘阮堂바람’이라고 할 정도로 김정희의 영향이 강하였던 때이므로, 추사화파뿐만 아니라 당시 화가들은 유입된 청의 회화 경향에 대한 관심보다 김정희의 말과 글에 더욱 집중하였다. 즉 그의 회화관에 따라 화단이 움직였다. 김정희가 규정한 산수화에서 “황한소경도”와 묵란화에서 “추사란”은 당시 화가들이 채택해야 할 규정이자 선본이었다. 황한소경도류는 허련, 전기, 유재소, 이한철, 홍현보 등이 이어갔으며, 추사란은 조희룡과 이하응을 중심으로 19세기 후반의 화단을 풍미하였다.
김정희파의 한중회화교류의 성과와 김정희의 회화관은 19세기 후반의 화단에 새로운 형식과 화풍의 회화가 제작되게 하였다. 우선 산수화에서는 한중회화교류의 결과로서 청대 아집도 형식의 수용, 梅龕圖에서 파생된 萬梅書屋圖의 유행을 꼽을 수 있다. 다음은 김정희의 회화관에 따른 것으로, 1860년대가 되어야 시작된 사왕계열 산수화풍의 수용, 천지석벽도 형식의 산수화 제작을 들 수 있다.
사군자화에서는 王冕의 묵매화에서 시작되었고 양주화파가 주로 그린 만매화풍의 영향, 조선 묵죽화 전통의 지속 속에 양주화파 묵죽화풍의 수용, 자연 환경조건으로 인한 분란의 유행과 유입된 군란을 비롯한 청대 묵란 형식의 조형적 이해, 회화 작품 속 괴석의 강조, 청대 화훼화의 유입으로 정리할 수 있다.
제현화상과 소조의 제작 역시 지속되었다. 그중에 소식상은 진상의 여부에 상관없이 소식이라는 본연의 의미에 충실하면 된다는 인식이 만연하게 되어 판본과 위본이 적극적으로 임모되었다. 한편 소식상을 비롯한 제현화상의 모티프를 소조에 응용하려는 방식이 결실을 맺어 문인화상에 사용되었다. 이 방식은 조선에서만 나타나는 독특한 현상이다. 조선이라는 사회에서 초상화는 常數적 상징물이었다. 소식상을 비롯한 제현화상의 모티프가 소조에 이용된 것은 주인공을 소식 등의 제현과 동일하게 바라보기 위함인 것이다.
이상과 같이 김정희파의 한중회화교류는 19세기 화단에 많은 변화를 일으키게 한 가장 중요한 요인이었다. 김정희파가 그럴 수 있었던 점은 김정희의 회화와 회화관 때문이었다. 그는 시대의 기준에 적당하게 기초하였고 시대의 요구를 정확하게 이해하였으며, 시대의 바람을 적절하게 실현하였던 문인화가이자 이론가였다.

Daegyo Kim Mun(大橋金門) from Gyeongju Kim Family which was well known as Kim Jeonghee's family was originally against Tangpyeong(impartiality policy) party during the reign of King Yeongjo. Since then, the family was divided into Kim Hanrok School and Kim Hanshin School who took different political paths. Kim Jeonghee belonged to the latter group, which was turned into pro-Tangpyeong party and Gyeonghwasajok(high class families resided in Seoul or Gyeonggi area for generations) during King Jeongjo's reign. In addition, Kim Hanshin School joined the Shipa(時派, Party of Expediency) during the earlier days of King Sunjo. Meanwhile, Kim Hanrok School was forced to leave out of the major academic groups or political community and ended up as Sarim(士林) in Hoseo region. Due to high profile of Kim Hanshin School in politics and academically affluent family including his father, Kim Nokyeong who was a famous book collector, Kim Jeonghee easily learned philosophy and arts about the Gyeonghwa academic circle while having an interest in the trend of Qing dynasty, and was finally dispatched to China as an envoy.
Therefore, Kim Jeonghee's way of judging and accepting the artistic trend in the Kyeonghwa region laid an important foundation for exercising his influence to lead the Korean artists' community in the 19th century. In addition, the arts trend during the period of Qianlong and Jiaqing(乾嘉) of the Qing Dynasty which was introduced to Joseon back then should be discussed.
Key scholars during that period were divided into two groups: one is around Western Zhejiang(浙西) region and the other was around Weng Fanggang(翁方綱) in Beijing. In this study, the former is called as the exchange network in arts and science focusing the Western Zhejiang region and the latter is designated as the exchange network around Weng Fanggang. At the end of 18th century, these two groups' literature and studies were introduced to Joseon, which not only caused conflicts but also sought balance with Joseon Neo-Confucianism. During the reign of King Jeongjo, scholars and theorists had directly-opposed ideas of inheritance and transition to Joseon Neo-Confucianism, which brought a discussion about seeking a compromise in the field of arts and studies between Han and Song Dynasty. Nevertheless, orthodox Neo-Confucianism and pure archaic texts had been in dominant positions in that debate. Kim following Bukhakpa(北學派: the Northern Learning School) had never accepted Mo Qiling(毛奇齡) who were against the Zhu Xi school of Neo-Confucianism and never stopped sharpening his criticism to the Wang Yangming school. When it comes to literary works, he was quite critical to Ars Poetica of Yuan Mei(袁枚). This stance was hardly different with the main trend during the reign of KIng Jeongjo. On the contrary, the situation was different in the paintings. Under the trend of the real scenery landscape paintings, the popular style of painting was influenced from the late Ming and the early Qing times, for example, Tung Chichang(董其昌), as the trend of paintings and calligraphic works from Qing dynasty was introduced to Joseon. The less distinction between the existing painting style of Joseon and the newly made style of Qing than that of thoughts and literature rarely showed any explicit conflicts.
Chusa carried on Tung's style which was popular in the era of King Jeongjo and showed the trend of short orchids painting focused on symbolism of orchid. Through literature or Kim's earlier works, it can be seen that he followed the trend of painting during King Jeongjo's reign such as copying art books or pieces of real scenery landscape paintings. His style was not in discord with the trend back then. That is why he could suggest the direction to balance the new trend while maintaining the existing painting style. Hwanghansogyeokdo and Chusa Ran(ink orchid painting) which were made during the period of Kim's exile in Jeju are good examples. Hence, it shall be discussed when the trend of Qing painting was introduced to Joseon and how it was perceived by Kim Jeonghee.
In this study, exchanges of painting trend between Korea and China established by Kim Jeonghee school will be classified into three parts; seniors of Chusa, his family including himself and fellow literati, and his disciples. Kim's senior painters opened doors to exchange painting styles between the two countries, while Kim's family and colleagues were at the peak. Then, his disciples wrapped up the old exchanges and started a new interchange between Korea and China.
Kim Jeonghee had been associated with mostly Noron(Old Doctrine faction) literati who supported Tangpyeong policy during the reign of King Jeongjo. Most of them were named as Bukhakpa including Hong Daeyong, Bak Jiwon, Bak Jega, Yu Deukgong, Yi Deokmoo, Jo Susam, and Gang Sehwang, although no mentor of Chusa has yet confirmed. The master of Kim Jeonghee might be the trend of arts and science in Seoul and Gyeonggi area, which was formed during the King Jeongjo's times. Bukhakpa introduced arts and paintings from Qing dynasty while Gang Sehwang played a pivotal role in leading the trend of paintings. Kim learned this trend through not only a direct companionship such as Park Jega but also social intercourses with associates' off springs. This artistic trend during the reign of King Jeongjo built up an underlying foundation for Kim Jeonghee's own trend in paintings.
Senior scholars of Kim Jeonghee associated and exchanged painting styles with literati network of Western Zhejiang(浙西) region and Weng Fanggang as Joseon's envoy mission to Qing. Through these social interchanges, they introduced landscape paintings showing the custom of Ming dynasty, portrait paintings from ZengZing(曾鯨) painting skills, Yangzhouhakpa School(揚州畵派), Loudong School(婁東畵派), Finger Painting(指頭畫法), and calligraphy as well as paintings related to Su Shi(蘇軾). The view, however, that Bukhakpa had on Qing dynasty paintings was based on the trend in Joseon dynasty in the 18th century. It meant that they didn't use their complete understanding on the trend of Qing dynasty paintings when they exchanged paintings between the two countries. Rather, they considered their art works made through an intercourse with Qing literati as symbolic art pieces of their companionship. Then, as they had been aware of Qing's painting style, they laid a stepping stone to exchange paintings of Kim Jeonghee's family and his literary colleagues between Korea and China.
The Chusa family and his fellow literati developed exchange of paintings in a far more aggressive way. They internally followed Yeonampa faction of Bukhakpa, while they were externally associated with literati of Western Zhejiang region and Weng Fanggang group. Unlike Yeonampa school, they had a tendency to establish a close relationship with Weng Fanggang group.
Kim Jeonghee was a bit distinct from Bukhakpa and had already been familiar with Qing's artistic trend before being dispatched to China. Furthermore, he went to Qing with a clear sense of purpose, while Bukhakpa went to China without any intentions. Thus, Kim tried to build a strong relationship with Weng Fanggang, which created a great sensation in calligraphy and paintings of Joseon during the early 19th century.
Through envoy mission and exchange of paintings, the Kim family and his fellow literati introduced new aspects such as Seookdo(書屋圖: painting of reading in a cottage) type of paintings such as Zhu Heinan(朱鶴年), production of Maegamdo(梅龕圖: Tabernacle with plum blossom tree) style landscape painting thanks to social intercourse with Wu Songliang(吳嵩梁), embracement of painting style of Sagunja(four gracious plants) like Yangjuhakpa, and influx of women painters, while keeping painting style of Qing dynasty brought by Bukhakpa. The acceptance of sage's images such as Su Shi was accompanied with the cultural fever to respect him. Moreover, exchanges of self portraits with the Qing literati had allowed to compare pictures of Su Shi to forecast a formative combination between self-portraits and Su Shi's image.
Unlike Bukhakpa, Kim Jeonghee was fully aware of the artistic trends of Qing dynasty even before he was sent to China. Under this circumstance, he left Joseon in October, 1809 head to Qing, which was a huge turning point in his artworks and studies. He met Weng Fanggang(翁方綱) and Ruan Yuan(阮元) in Beijing, while relationship with Weng Fanggagn brought various changes in Kim's literature and paintings. Since then, keeping to travel to China, Kim Jeonghee and his family continued to carry on a variety of artistic trend started by Kim.
On the contrary of Bukhakpa, the Chusa family and fellow literati exchanged a huge amount of paintings. Kim Jeonghee, Shin Wi, and Hong Hyeonju were willing to comply with Qing literati who asked for paintings and gave them as gifts. Furthermore, they presented some paintings drawn by Jo Heeryong to Beijing, which made their profiles raise to an almost equal level. This was when exchanges of paintings between the two countries reached its peak in the history of Joseon painting.
Kim Jeonghee and his colleagues applied their achievement to the theory of the painting as well as their paintings. Kim himself accepted the theory of Qing literature and painting. Among them, the theory of Poetry by Weng Fanggang was a basis to make a foundation for Kim Jeonghee's theory of art as well as his theory of the painting. Based on these studies, Kim set up the art learning process as follows; firstly Qing painters including Huang Gong-wang(黃公望) and Ni Zan(倪瓚) were seen as the essence of literary paintings(祖印) in a field of landscape paintings, while Dong Qi-chang(董其昌) and Four Wangs(四王) were considered as the legitimate lineage(嫡傳). In case of ink orchid painting, if Zheng Sixiao(鄭思肖) was seen as the origin(Jongjo), Zhao Mengfu(趙孟頫) could be put into the essence and Zheng Xie(鄭燮) or Qian Zai(錢載) would be categorized as the legitimate lineage. This is called as Kim's theory of doorway(門經論). In the particulars, he took the painting theory of Qing dynasty to make the major theory of 'dry brushstroke-light ink(枯筆淡墨)' and 'accumulated ink(積墨)' in a field of landscape painting as well as the theory of brush and Chinese ink called 'Method of three twists(三傳法) and 'Method of left-handed writing(左筆法)' in ink orchid paintings. However, the spirit of literati painting established in the late 18th century had been underlain his own theory of painting.
Kim Jeonghee, his fellow painters, and his family introduced various kinds of paintings to Joseon and its amount was incomparably more than that of Bukhakpa. Meanwhile, those that firmly upheld the tradition in the Joseon painting community had accepted the trend of Qing paintings on a basis of their own traditional trend.
Kim favored paintings carrying bleak landscapes, which can be defined as Hwanghansokyeongdo(黃寒小景圖, landscape of dreary winter). This type of painting was based on literary painting which was popular in Joseon during the 18th century and was combined with the formation of literary painting from western Zhejiang region as well as the theory of brush and ink of Sawang(四王: Four Wangs) painting trend. .
It was the Ink orchid painting that Kim Jeonghee passionately accommodated the trend of Qing painting. Since he came back from China, Kim showed a deep affection for ink orchid paintings by Qian Zai(錢載), a friend of Weng Fang-gang and continuously collected art books of Yangjuhakpa including Zheng Xie(鄭燮). Based upon this effort, Kim accomplished his own way to draw orchid called Chusa Ran(秋史蘭). As for his colleague painters, Kim Yugeun and Gwon Donin were influenced by Kim Jeonghee's painting style, they could be classified as Chusa School.
The fruitful outcome from exchanges of paintings between Korea and China by the Kim family and Chusa's fellow painters established a foundation for Yi Sangjeok, one of Kim's pupils, and Oh Kyeongseok and Kim Seokjun, who were Yi's pupil as well as Kim's disciples in his late years.
Kim's disciples achieved unprecedented success in diverse exchanges between Korea and China. As Chusa's disciples, they not only carried on the trend of exchanges between the two countries but approached in a very holistic way. However, it was not because of their painting styles but because of their positions as envoys, which gave them much chance to associate a host of Qing literati.
Their intercourse mostly took place inside the network of western Zhejiang region and Weng Fanggang group. But, later, they started to build a relationship with literati outside that network. In particular, Oh Kyeongseok had a great relationship with them, which was partly because China was colonized due to the Opium War and China-UK War. Academic network of arts formed under regional and personal connections was no more effective in the middle of collapse of existing social orders and traditions. Thus, the network was replaced with people from a variety of provinces and some successors of western Zhejiang region and Weng Fanggang group, which was named as Yangmupa school.
While inheriting his master's exchange trend of paintings, Yi Sangjeok introduced a new Qing painting style. First of all, he showed off splendid and sensuous styles including Handamdo(閑談圖, leisurely conversation painting) and Ahhoido(雅會圖, elegant assembly), which were mostly painted by Oh Jun(吳儁). Meanwhile, Yi Sangjeok was also ranked as one of Qing literary painters and established a social intercourse with Tang Yifen(湯貽汾) and witnessed artworks from Dai Xi(戴熙). In addition, he had a cultural relationship with Songhu school(松壺畵派) including Cheng Tinglu(程庭鷺) and Cheng Zuqing(程祖慶) as well as Zhou Tang(周棠), an artist painting oddly shaped rocks, and influx of women painters' works, while playing a pioneer to introduce various painting trend of Qing dynasty. Yi brought printed books and fabricated editions related to Su Shi's image and helped Kim Jeonghee school to produce Su Shi's images.
Since Yi Sangjeok was not a painter, he usually exchanged his calligraphy works with Qing artists. He introduced many artworks by Joseon painters to Qing to make its literati admire Chusa's works.
As Oh Kyeongseok and Kim Seokjun were Chusa's pupils at the end of his life, they were relatively less affected from their master. Besides, they traveled to Qing at the late 19th century, so literati who they established relationships were different those of their master's. Oh, therefore, could lay a new framework in the history of painting exchanges between Korea and China.
They exchanged paintings with Cheng Zuqing and Gong Heoni(孔憲彛) who had met Yi Sangjeok, while Oh Kyeongseok built a new social intercourse with Yangmupa. Oh exchanged paintings with Yangmupa including Liu Quanfu(劉銓福) and Zhang Shizhun(張世準), while setting up relationships with painters from Shanghai for the first time. Since he was a painter, he was able to exchange paintings with Qing artists, giving his own plum blossom tree or landscape paintings as gifts. His plum blossom painting was copied by Qing painters, especially having influence on Zhang Shizhun. This shows how artistic exchanges between the two countries had developed beyond just introduction and copy of artworks for Qing artists to accommodate Joseon painting style, finally reaching an equal level of the two nations.
Oh Gyeongseok was well aware of Qing painting trend and accepted it in a very aggressive way. He tried to the most popular Sawang painting style and was eager to collect Qing paintings. His active propensity and practice contributed to a rapid influx of Shanghai painting trend as well as Qing's Sawang painting style during the late enlightening period. Nonetheless, there is no enthusiastic reaction among Joseon artists about Qing painting styles introduced by Chusa's disciples, since they were highly affected by Kim Jeonghee's style in the 1950s.
The result from exchange of paintings between the two countries and the theory of paintings and art works produced by Chusa and his fellow literati brought changes in the late 19th century. The most noteworthy change was that Chusa school newly built its firm groundwork. Among them were Huh Ryun, Jo Heeryong, Jeon Gi, Yu Jaeso, and Lee Haeung. The time when they were included into Chusa school would be somewhat different, but they were key figures who exercised their leverage as Chusa school in the 1850s. After Kim painted Hwanghansogyeokdo and Chusa Ran right after being released from an exile in Jeju Island, they produced following paintings such as Bangwandangsansuhwa(landscape painting).
Both the trend of Qing paintings and its drawings introduced thanks to Chusa as envoy mission were selected to be included or to be excluded according to standards made by Kim Jeonghee in the middle and late 19th century. During this period, Chusa's opinion carried a lot of clout, even his influence was called as "Wandang(阮堂) Power". Therefore, painters not to mention Chusa school painters were keenly interested in his words or letters more than the trend of Qing painting. The art community only followed Kim's viewpoint on artworks. Hwanghansokyeongdo from landscape paintings and Chusa Ran from Ink Orchid paintings defined by Kim Jeonghee were example models that artists should follow. Hwanghansokyeongdo type of painting was succeeded by Huh Ryun, Jeon Gi, Yu Jaeso, Yi Hancheol, and Hong Hyeonbo, while ink orchids were flourished by Jo Heeryong and Lee Haeung in the middle and late 19th century
Kim's achievement in exchange of paintings between the two nations and his view on drawings made it possible to bring new format and style of paintings to Joseon in the late 19th century.
In terms of landscape painting, exchange of painting styles between Korean and China resulted in an acceptance of Ajipdo(雅集圖, painting of literary gathering) from Qing dynasty and a huge popularity of Manmaeseookdo(萬梅書屋圖: painting of Plum Blossoms and cottage) stemmed from Maegamdo(梅龕圖: Tabernacle with plum blossom tree). Kim's viewpoint on paintings let it happen to accept Four Wangs style landscape paintings and to paint Cheonjiseokbyeokdo(天池石壁圖) style of landscape drawings.
For Sagunja paintings, ink painting of plum blossom by Wang Mian(王冕) was first introduced and full plum blossom(萬梅花) style painted by Yangjuhwapa had an effect on Joseon painters. As they maintained the tradition of Joseon ink painting of bamboo, literary painters accommodated Yangjuhwapa painting style and understand a formative shape of ink orchid painting during Qing dynasty including orchids entering Korea and popular dwarf orchid due to natural environment. In addition, oddly shaped stones in the paintings were especially highlighted, while flower paintings of Qing were introduced.
Both sage's image and plastic arts were continuously released. In terms of Su Shi's image, most of people thought it didn't matter whether the image was genuine or not as long as it showed Su Shi's image. Therefore, a huge amount of copied or fabricated edition of Su Shi's image were made. As the method to apply the motif of sage's image to the plastic arts had succeeded, it was used to build the portraits of literary artists, which was seen as a unique phenomenon in Joseon. Portraits in Joseon society was an invariable symbol. The reason that motif of Sage's image including Su Shi was used to make the plastic arts was that people wanted to be regarded as sages such as Su Shi.
Therefore, exchanges of painting styles between Korea and China established by Kim Jeonghee school could be the most important factor to bring changes to art community in the 19th century, which was attributed to Chusa's paintings and his point of view on artworks. While his standards were properly founded on the criteria of those times, he was a literary painter as well as scholar who had a clear understanding about demands of the era and accomplished them.