The purpose of this study is to demonstrate clearly Jeong Yak-Yong’s Statecraft(經世學) in terms of Land-to-the-Tiller Principle(農者得田) in general. This is done in two respects: one is to pursue the stepwise understanding of ideal system in Three Periods of Xia, Yin. Zhou., and the other is to prove what the contents and the purposes of the state reformation proposal on the foundation of learning of confucian classics.
In confucian classics, the ideology of the Three Periods of Xia, Yin. Zhou.'s Land System is conveyed by Bunjeon(分田) and Jerock(制祿)” of the Royal Land(王土), but of which the Old Law(古法) is not clearly explained. In this regards, the Confucian scholars believed in the ideology of Three Periods, but the Old Law(古法) had different understandings. While there was a series of views that considered the Nine-square Field(井田) as a dividing system throughout Three Periods, Zhu Xi(朱子) limited the scope of action to Yin. Zhou.'s Ya(野) by combining the Nine-square Field(井田) and Jobeob(助法)=Gongjeon. On the other hand, Jung Hyun(鄭玄) viewed the Ten-square Field(10溝法) and the Nine-square Field(井田) in different ways, and classified the enforcement areas of the two by matching the areas of royal's ruling land and fudal states in Wangki(王畿). In the late Joseon Dynasty, the scholars generally followed the views of Jung Hyun(鄭玄) and Zhu Xi(朱子), but the scholars of Namin(南人) interpreted Nine-square Field(井田) unlike to Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius(『孟子集註』) or put the implication of Feudalism(封建) in Wangki(王畿) in the equal distribution of land instead of decentralization. This trend also relates to the theories of land system reform proposed by Namin(南人) at the time.
Dasan in the period of official career understanded the Three Periods according to the Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius(『孟子集註』). On the other hand, in Jeonron(<田論>, 1798), he proposed Land-to-the-Tiller Principle(農者得田) as the ideology of the Three Periods's land system under nine consecutive jobs and thus tried to reform the Joseon's land system by inventing Yeojeon-Lon(閭田論). However, the theory was not discussed at the level of the state governing system, because his method of understanding old law was based on the Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius(『孟子集註』), which regarded Nine-square Field(井田) as a partial land system of Three Periods.
Dasan explored the Three Periods ruling system and its Old Law(古法) during his late exile period(1808-1818), and constantly modified and supplemented the viewpoint of the period of official career. It can be broadly divided into three stages. The first was the Samdae Jungjiron(三代井地論), which regarded the Nine-square Field(井田) as a section of the whole area of the Three Periods Land by breaking away from the way of understanding Nine-square Field(井田) of Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius(『孟子集註』). However, he maintained the Classical style of Mencius(『孟子』), which matched Gongjeon(公田) with Jobeob(助法). Also, he considered the location of 6-Hyang(6鄕) in Zhou-li(『周禮』) into the capital, and Wangki(王畿) was divided into the non-agricultural land, Kuk(國) and the agricultural land, Ya(野). Also, by considering the tax on land and the tax on without land as dual systems, he reinterpreted the system of receipt under the nine consecutive jobs. However, he failed to systemize the 9-Bu(賦) of Zhou-li(『周禮』) that corresponds to the tax on without land. The Samdae Jungjiron(三代井地論) is appeared in Juyeok-sajeon(『周易四箋』, 1808), Sangseo-jiwonrog(『尙書知遠錄』, 1811), Nono-gokumjoo(『論語古今註』, 1813), Mengja-yoeui(『孟子要義』, 1814), and a part of Kyungseyupyo(『經世遺表』). This means that Kyungseyupyo(『經世遺表』) was initiated during this period.
The second stage was a One-way Samdaegingjeonron(一元的 三代公田論) which considered Gongjeon(公田) was installed in whole agricultural land of Three Periods by breaking away from the Classical style of Mencius(『孟子』), which matched Gongjeon(公田) with Jobeob(助法). As a result, the ideology of Bunjeon(分田) and Jerock(制祿) could be specifically proved through the Old Law(古法) of Gongjeon(公田). Since this view appeared in the chapter of Dueng-Mungong-Munwiigug(<滕文公問爲國> )of Mengja-yoeui(『孟子要義』), it was modified according to the newly established view after Mengja-yoeui(『孟子要義』) was written.
The third stage was Two-way Samdaegingjeonron(二元的 三代公田論), which means that although Gongjeon(公田) was installed around the whole agricultural area of Three Periods, the division method was different from the Ten-square Field(10溝法) and the Nine-square Field(井田). Based on the respect of Zhou-li(『周禮』), Ten-square Field(10溝法) and the Nine-square Field(井田) were decided as separate division method, it was expressed in the article of Sapiljeon-Monjungjijul(<使畢戰問井地節>) of Mengja-yoeui(『孟子要義』) and Kyungseyupyo(『經世遺表』) overall. This means that Dasan carried out the second writing of Kyungseyupyo(『經世遺表』) and the second revision of Mengja-yoeui(『孟子要義』) under Two-way Samdaegingjeonron(二元的 三代公田論).
In particular, Dasan studied Zhou-li(『周禮』) in earnest under the Two-way Samdaegingjeonron(二元的 三代公田論), and through this he invented the Three Periods' System of State on Gongjeon(三代 公田體制). First of all, Gongjeon(公田) became a key law of the ruling system including the land system. Only the farmers gained land, and land gainer co-cultivated the Gongjeon(公田) and paid tax on land. Also, the official handed down for generations Sujo(收租) on Gongjeon(公田) and their official position. In addition, based on the occupation of the 9-Professions(9職), the tax system was divided into two parts, tax on land and tax on without land[9賦], and tax on without land[9賦] were imposed and calculated according to the occupation and the richness. And the Wangki(王畿) was divided into Kuk(國) and Ya(野), and Ya(野) was divided into the division of Ten-square Field(10溝法) and the division of the Nine-square Field(井田). Dasan thought that the entire Wangki(王畿) was governed by a bureaucratic ruling system, and tried to explain the Ols Law(古法) through Confucian scriptures. In the meantime, he saw 6-Su(遂) as agricultural areas in the first place, but later he came up with a national reformation proposal by reinterpreting it as the co-habitation of 9-Professions(9職).
Dasan modeled the system of the Three Periods' System of State on Gongjeon(三代 公田體制), and prepared the national reform proposal by reflecting the realities of Joseon Dynasty. In the reform proposal, Dasan established Gongjeon(公田) in a ratio of 1/9 [or 1/10] on the entire farmland based on the Two-way Samdaegingjeonron(二元的 三代公田論). 8-farm families or 9-farm families paid the tax on land by co-cultivating the Gongjeon(公田), and thus tax on land in Joseon was reformed by Jobeob(助法) on Gongjeon(公田). However, farmland could not be wholly converted into Royal Land(王土) under private ownership, so Royal Land(王土) was partially prepared through purchasing and conversion of Kwanjeon(官田), and the rest was practically induced to gradually transition. The farmland in the division of Ten-square Field(10溝法) was changed Royal Land(王土), and the farmland in the Nine-square Field(井田) was partly distributed to create independent farming households. He tried to reform military system by imposing a duty on the gainer.
The reform of the tax system was based on the principle of dualisation of the tax on land and tax on without land, but part of tax on without land, such as Gongmul(貢物) and others, were included in tax on land given the reality of non-division onto 9-Professions(9職). In addition, with the policies to induce the division onto 9-Professions(9職), he had prepared ways to create sources of taxation in these industries.
In addition to the division onto 9-Professions(9職), he attempted to reorganize the real Sa(士) as Sa(仕) which means bureaucrat. Therefore, education was given to the whole country and the whole people, and the state examination system was linked with education system. Especially, it was premised on regional discrimination, but any people could become a Sa(仕) according to his ability, and it was intended to organize a person who had no ability as a Sa(仕) into 9-Professions(9職). Also he intended to strengthen the publicity and the professionalism of bureaucracy by introducing a relative evaluation system.
The above reform proposal was mixed of gradual proposals by realistic constraints such as private ownership, non-division onto 9-Professions(9職), disorganized class of Sa(士) and others. However, the final form and goal of the national reform plan that he envisioned was the Three Periods' System of State on Gongjeon(三代 公田體制) based on Land-to-the-Tiller Principle(農者得田). It has been consistently expressed his works written after the release from Banishment(1818~1836).

본 논문은 茶山 丁若鏞의 經世學을 ‘農者得田’ 하에서 전반적으로 해명하는 것에 목적을 두었다. 논증은 두 가지 측면에서 이루어졌는데, 하나는 삼대 이상사회에 경학적 이해방식의 변화를 단계적으로 추적하는 것이고, 다른 하나는 이같은 경학적 토대 하에서 개진한 국가개혁안의 내용과 목표를 구체적으로 해명하는 것이다.
유교 경전은 삼대 토지제도의 이념을 왕토 하의 分田과 制祿으로 전한다. 선유들은 삼대의 理念을 신빙하되, 古法은 상이하게 이해했다. 그 중에서 朱子는 井田을 公田[助法]과 결합해 시행범위를 殷·周의 野로 국한했다. 鄭玄은 10溝法과 井田法의 권역을 천자직할지와 畿內封建의 구역과 일치시켜 구분했다. 조선후기 儒者들은 대체로 鄭玄과 朱子의 견해를 따랐으나, 南人 중심의 儒者는 『孟子集註』와 달리 井田을 해석하거나, 封建의 함의를 分權이 아닌 均等分配에 두기도 했다. 이러한 경향은 당시 제기된 토지제도개혁론의 경학적 토대가 되었다.
사환기의 茶山은 『孟子集註』에 따라 삼대의 古法을 이해했다. 한편 <田論>(1798)에서 9職 專業 하의 ‘農者得田’을 삼대의 이념으로 제시하고, 공동농장인 閭田論을 창안해 토지제도를 개혁하고자 했다. 다만 여전론은 통치체제의 차원에서 논의되지는 못했는데, 그가 『孟子集註』에 의거해 정전을 삼대의 부분적 토지제도로 간주한 까닭에 삼대 통치체제상의 古法을 논정하지 못했기 때문이다.
다산은 유배기 후반(1808-1818) 삼대 통치체제와 古法을 탐구했다. 3단계로 나눌 수 있는데, 첫 번째는 三代井地論으로 『孟子集註』의 견해를 탈피해 정지를 삼대 전역의 구획으로 간주했다. 다만 公田과 助法을 일치시켰던 『孟子』의 經義는 유지했다. 또한 『周禮』의 6鄕을 王城 내로 비정해서, 王畿를 비농업지대인 國[王城]과 농업지대인 野로 양분했다. 그리고 田租와 賦稅를 이원적 체계로 봄으로써, 9職 專業 하에서 수취체제를 재해석했다. 다만 賦稅에 해당하는 『周禮』의 9賦는 체계화하지 못했다. 三代井地論은 『周易四箋』(1808). 『尙書知遠錄』(1811), 『論語古今註』(1813), 『孟子集註』(1814), 그리고 『經世遺表』의 일부분에서도 나타난다. 이를 통해 『經世遺表』가 이 기간 중에 착수된 것임을 추론할 수 있다. 두 번째 단계는 ‘一元的 三代公田論’으로, 『孟子』의 경의를 벗어나서 公田을 삼대 농지 전역에 비정했다. 이로써 分田과 制祿의 理念은 公田이라는 古法을 통해 구체적으로 논증될 수 있게 되었다. 이같은 견해는 『孟子要義』의 <滕文公問爲國>에서 나타나는데, 『孟子要義』(초고본)이 저술된 이후 새로이 정립된 견해에 따라 관련된 부분을 수정했기 때문이다. 세 번째 단계는 삼대 전역의 농지에 공전이 설치되었지만, 그 구획방식이 10구법과 정전법으로 달랐다고 본 ‘二元的 三代公田論’이다. 『周禮』의 경의를 토대로 하여 10구법과 정전법을 별개의 구획방식으로 봄으로써 논정되었는데, 『孟子集註』의 〈使畢戰問井地節〉과 『經世遺表』의 전반에 걸쳐 피력되어 있다. 이는 다산이 二元的 三代公田論 하에서 『孟子集註』의 2차수정과 『經世遺表』의 2차 집필을 진행했음을 의미한다.
특히 다산은 ‘二元的 三代公田論’ 하에서 『周禮』를 본격적으로 탐구했고, 三代 公田體制를 창안했다. 공전은 토지제도와 통치체제의 핵심적 전장이 되었다. 농자만이 득전하고, 公田을 공동경작해 전조를 납부했다. 관료는 관직과 함께 공전에서의 수조를 世傳했다. 수취체제는 9직의 전업을 토대로 전조와 9부로 이원화되고, 9賦는 직업과 빈부에 따라 부과 및 산출되었다. 왕기는 국과 야로, 야는 다시 10溝法地帶와 井田法地帶로 양분된다. 또한 다산은 기내 전역이 관료제에 의한 집권적 방식으로 통치되었다고 보고, 고법적 형태를 유교 경전을 통해 해명하고자 했다. 한편 애초 6遂를 全農業地帶로 보았으나, 이후 職役混在地라고 재해석하여 국가개혁안을 마련했다.
다산은 三代 公田體制를 모델로 하되, 조선적 현실을 반영해 국가개혁안을 마련했다. 개혁안에서 다산은 二元的 三代公田論에 입각해 농지 전역에 1/9[또는 1/10]의 비율로 公田을 설치했다. 8畉 혹은 9畉에서의 경작자가 公田을 공동경작하여 田租를 납부하고, 田租는 公田 助法으로 개혁했다. 다만 사적 소유 하에서 농지를 급격하게 왕토로 전환할 수 없었으므로, 買入과 官田의 公田 轉換 등의 방법으로 부분적으로 왕토를 마련하고, 나머지는 점진적 전환을 실제적으로 유도했다. 10溝法地帶의 농지는 전역을 王土로, 井田法地帶의 농지는 일부를 분급하여 독립자영농을 창출하고, 득전자에게 兵農의 의무를 부과해서 군제개혁까지 함께 이루고자 했다. 수취체제의 개혁은 田租와 賦稅의 이원화를 원칙으로 하되, 9職 미분업의 현실을 감안해 大同稅 등의 賦稅 일부를 田租에 포함했다. 또한 9職의 전업을 유도하는 제반 정책과 함께 이들 산업에서 부세 재원을 창출하는 방안을 마련했다. 9職의 專業化와 더불어 현실의 士를 치자로서의 仕로 재편하고자 했다. 이에 全國과 全民人을 대상으로 교육을 실시하고, 과거를 교육과 연계시켰다. 특히 지역적 차별을 전제하기는 했지만, 民人이면 누구나 능력에 따라 治者가 될 수 있게 했고, 治者로서의 素養이 없는 현실의 士는 9職으로 편성하고자 했다. 또한 상대평가 본위의 考績·考藝를 실질적으로 시행하여, 관료제의 공공성과 전문성을 제고했다. 그가 구상한 국가개혁안의 최종 형태이자 목표는 農者得田에 기초한 三代 公田體制였다. 그리고 이는 『經世遺表』뿐만 아니라 해배후의 저술에서도 경학적 理想으로서, 또한 經世學의 목표로서 일관되게 표명되고 있었다.