Characteristics and Nutritional and Cardiovascular-Health Properties of Seaweeds

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

While marine algae have traditionally formed part of the Oriental diet, their major use in Western countries has been in the phytocolloid industry. Only a few coastal communities outside Asia have customarily used seaweeds as components of special dishes. Of late, however, seaweeds have gained importance as foodstuffs in Western countries and most recently as components of functional foods because of their high dietary fiber, mineral, vitamin, and phytochemical content, low energy levels, and high concentrations of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids. The present paper reviews the available data for some of the components of the major edible algae and studies several factors that can affect their physiochemical properties (e.g., hydration, water and oil-holding capacity, fermentability, binding capacity, etc.) and, in turn, their nutritional importance. The effects of marine alga consumption on growth and body weight, mineral availability, lipid metabolism, blood pressure, and antioxidant properties are reviewed, together with preliminary data on the effects of some functional foods containing seaweeds on lipid metabolism and gene expression of enzymes engaged in antioxidant protection. This review concludes with some remarks regarding the danger of the improper use of seaweeds in herbal medications. In addition, as the properties of algae are highly dependent on their individual composition, any generalization regarding these properties may be considered misleading and scientifically inappropriate.

참고문헌 (Reference)

• 1 Harris WS, "n-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies" 65 : 1645S-1654S, 1997
• 2 Gayral P, "et Reconnaître les AlguesMarines" Éditions Ouest France 1986
• 3 McHuhh D, "Worldwide distribution of commercial resources of seaweeds including Gelidium" 221 : 19-29, 1991
• 4 Cummings JH, "What is dietary fiber?" 2 : 99-103, 1991
• 5 Chopin T, "Water aquaculture of the red algae Chondrus crispus in Price Edward Island" 399 : 417-425, 1999
• 6 Alemany M, "Vitaminas. In: Enciclopedia de Dietas y Nutrición" Planeta 213-272, 1999
• 7 Watanabe F, "Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability" 232 : 1266-1274, 2007
• 8 Stabler SP, "Vitamin B12 deficiency as a worldwide problem" 24 : 299-326, 2004
• 9 Jenkins DJ, "Viscous and nonviscous fibres, nonabsorbable and low glycaemic index carbohydrates, blood lipids and coronary heart disease" 11 : 49-56, 2000
• 10 Holland B, "Vegetables, herbs and spices. In: McCance, and Widdowson’s the Composition of Foods, 5th Suppl" Royal Society of Chemistry 94-97, 1991
• 11 Koivikko R, "Variation of phlorotannins among three populations of Fucus vesiculosus as revealed by HPLC and colorimetric quantification" 34 : 57-64, 2008
• 12 Jormalainen V, "Variation in natural selection for growth and phlorotannins in the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus" 17 : 807-820, 2004
• 13 Teas J, "Variability of iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds" 14 : 836-841, 2004
• 14 Kang HS, "Tyrosinase inhibitors isolated from the edible brown alga Ecklonia stolonifera" 27 : 1226-1232, 2004
• 15 Ishizuki Y, "Transient thyrotoxicosis induced by Japanese Kombu" 65 : 91-98, 1989
• 16 Munoz O, "Total and inorganic arsenic in fresh andprocessed fish products" 48 : 4369-4376, 2000
• 17 Zhang Q, "The structure of a sulfated galactan from Porphyra haitanensis and its in vivo antioxidant activity" 339 : 105-111, 2004
• 18 Fujiwara-Arasaki T, "The protein value in human nutrition of edible marine algae in Japan" 116 : 513-516, 1986
• 19 Chisolm GM, "The oxidative modification hypothesis of atherogenesis: an overview" 28 : 1815-1826, 2000
• 20 Nisizawa K, "The main seaweed foods in Japan" 151 : 5-29, 1987
• 21 Kelly WR, "The liver and biliary system. In: Pathology of Domestic Animals, 4th ed" Academic Press 319-406, 1993
• 22 Gretz MR, "The galactan sulphates of the conchocelis phases of Porphyra leucostricta and Bangia atropurpurea (Rhodophyta)" 34 : 705-711, 1983
• 23 Kashimura J, "The effects of sugar-beet fibre and wheat bran on iron and zinc" 54 : 239-250, 1996
• 24 Griffin NJ, "The effects of a simulated harvest on Porphyra in South Africa" 399 : 138-189, 1999
• 25 Oben J, "The effects of ProAlgaZyme novel algae infusion on metabolic syndrome and markers of cardiovascular health" 6 : 20-, 2007
• 26 Ito K, "The effect of algal polysaccharides on the depressing of plasma cholesterol level in rats" Tokyo University Press 451-454, 1972
• 27 Yamamoto T, "The distribution of chemical elements in algae. In: Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science" Walter de Gruyter 569-607, 1979
• 28 Ramarathanam N, "The contribution of plant food antioxidant to human health" 6 : 75-82, 1995
• 29 Tseng CK, "The biology of seaweeds. In: Botanical Monographs, Vol. 17" Blackwell Scientific Publications 680-, 1981
• 30 Miyashita A, "The Seaweed: The Cultural History of Material and Human Being" University of Hosie Press 1974
• 31 Sandford P, "The Polysaccharides, Vol. 2" Academic Press 1983
• 32 Dodge JD, "The Fine Structure of Algal Cells" Academic Press 1973
• 33 Ortega-Calvo JJ, "Sáiz-Jiménez C: Chemical composition of Spirulina and eukaryotic algae food products marketed in Spain" 5 : 425-435, 1993
• 34 Yigeng G, "Supression of radioactive strontium absorption by sodium alginate in animals and human subjects." 4 : 273-282, 1991
• 35 Conquer JA, "Supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid increases (n-3) fatty acid status and alters selected risk factors for heart disease in vegetarian subjects" 126 : 3032-3039, 1996
• 36 Hou XL, "Study on the concentration and seasonal variation of inorganic elements in 35 species of marine algae" 222 : 141-156, 1998
• 37 Ren D, "Study on antihypertensive and antihyperlipidemic effects of marine algae" 60 : 83-88, 1994
• 38 Charles AL, "Studies on the expression of liver detoxifying enzymes in rats fed seaweed (Monostroma nitidum" 45 : 2390-2396, 2007
• 39 Kloareg B, "Structure of the cell walls of marine algae and ecophysiological functions of the matrix polysaccharides" 26 : 259-315, 1998
• 40 Guillon F, "Structural and physical properties of dietary fibres and consequences of processing on human physiology" 33 : 233-245, 2000
• 41 Pavia H, "Spatial variation in polyphenolic content of Ascophyllum nodosum (Fucales, Phaeophyta)" 326 : 199-203, 1996
• 42 Sánchez-Machado DI, "Simultaneous determination of thiamine and riboflavin in edible marine seaweeds by high-performance liquid chromatography" 42 : 117-120, 2004
• 43 Bastida S, "Selected trace elements and minerals in cord blood: association with lipids and lipoproteins at birth" 89 : 1201-1206, 2000
• 44 Fleurence J, "Seaweeds proteins: biochemical, nutritional aspects and potential uses" 10 : 25-28, 1999
• 45 Renn DW, "Seaweeds and biotechnology-inseparable companions" 204 : 7-13, 1990
• 46 Chapman VJ, "Seaweeds and Their Uses" Chapman and Hall 1980
• 47 Ito K, "Seaweed: chemical composition and potential uses" 5 : 101-144, 1989
• 48 Mabeau S, "Seaweed in food products: biochemical and nutritional aspects" 4 : 103-107, 1993
• 49 Lahaye M, "Seaweed dietary fibres: structure, physicochemical and biological properties relevant to intestinal physiology" 17 : 563-584, 1997
• 50 Maeda H, "Seaweed carotenoid, fucoxanthin, as a multi-functional nutrient" 17 : 196-199, 2008
• 51 Mairh OP, "Seasonal variation, bioaccumulation and prevention of loss of iodine in seaweeds" 28 : 3307-3310, 1989
• 52 Qari R, "Seasonal changes in biochemical composition of seaweeds from Karachi coast" 31 : 94-96, 1988
• 53 Diplock AT, "Scientific concepts of functional food in Europe: consensus document" 81 : 1-27, 1999
• 54 Jiménez-Escrig A, "Saura-Calixto F: Antioxidant activity of fresh and processed edible seaweeds" 81 : 530-534, 2001
• 55 Ardiansyah, Shirakawa H, "Rice bran fractions improve blood pressure, lipid profile, and glucose metabolism in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats" 54 : 1914-1920, 2006
• 56 Morgan KC, "Review of chemical constituents of the red alga Palmaria palmata (Dulse)" 34 : 27-50, 1980
• 57 Buschmann AH, "Red algal farming in Chile: a review" 194 : 203-220, 2001
• 58 Jeong BY, "Quality factors and functional components in the edible seaweeds. I. Distribution on n-3 fatty acids in 10 species of seaweeds by their habitats" 22 : 612-628, 1993
• 59 Ortega RM, "Programa DIAL para Valoración de Dietas y Cálculos de Alimentación" Departamento de Nutrición (UCM) y Alce Ingeniería 2008
• 60 Sánchez-Muniz FJ, "Prevention of dietary hypercholesterolemia in rats using sunflower oil-fried sardines. Effects on cholesterol and serum enzymes" 40 : 2226-2231, 1992
• 61 Jensen A, "Present and future needs for algae and algal products" 260 : 15-23, 1993
• 62 Michel F, "Preparation and characterisation of dietary fibre from sugar beet pulp" 42 : 77-85, 1988
• 63 Rupérez P, "Potential antioxidant capacity of sulfated polysaccharides from the edible marine brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus" 50 : 840-845, 2002
• 64 Vaquero MP, "Potassium: bioavailability, physiology. In: Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 2nd ed" Elsevier 4650-4657, 2003
• 65 Shevchenko NM, "Polysaccharide and lipid composition of the brown seaweed Laminaria gurjanovae" 33 : 96-107, 2007
• 66 Loewus FA, "Plant Carbohydrates. I. Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, Vol. 13A" Springer Verlag 1982
• 67 Ragan MA, "Physodes and the phenolic compounds of brown algae. Isolation and characterization of phloroglucinol polymers from Fucus vesiculosus (L.)" 54 : 66-73, 1976
• 68 Schoenwaelder MEA, "Physode distribution and the effect of “thallus sunburn” in Hormosira banksii (Fucales, Phaeophyceae)" 45 : 262-266, 2002
• 69 Ragan MA, "Phlorotannins, brown algal polyphenols" 4 : 129-241, 1986
• 70 Ragan MA, "Phenolic compounds in brown and red algae. In: Handbook of Phycological Methods: Physiological and Biochemical Methods" Cambridge University Press 157-179, 1978
• 71 Howlett J, "PASSCLAIM—Report of the Second Plenary Meeting: review of a wider set of interim criteria for the scientific substantiation of health claim" 43 : 174-183, 2004
• 72 Sánchez-Muniz FJ, "Olive oil-fried sardines in the prevention of dietary hypercholesterolemia in rats. Effects on some serum lipids and celldamage marker enzymes" 16 : 111-121, 1996
• 73 Jurkovic N, "Nutritive value of marine algaeLaminaria japónica and Undaria pinnatifida" 1 : 63-66, 1995
• 74 Burtin P, "Nutritional value of seaweeds" 2 : 24-28, 2003
• 75 Galland-Irmouli AV, "Nutritional value of proteins from edible seaweed Palmaria palmata (dulse)" 10 : 353-359, 1990
• 76 MacArtain P, "Nutritional value of edible seaweeds" 65 : 535-543, 2007
• 77 Wong KH, "Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds—Part I—proximate composition, amino acid profiles and some physico-chemical properties" 71 : 475-482, 2000
• 78 Wong KH, "Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds. Part II. In vitro protein digestibility and amino acid profiles of protein concentrates" 72 : 11-17, 2001
• 79 Norziah MH, "Nutritional composition of edible seaweed Gracilaria changgi" 68 : 69-76, 2000
• 80 Dawczynski C, "Nutritional and toxicological importance of macro, trace, and ultra-trace elements in algae food products" 55 : 10470-10475, 2007
• 81 Ordovas JM, "Nutrigenetics, plasma lipids, and cardiovascular risk" 106 : 1074-1081, 2006
• 82 U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, "Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 14. U.S. Department of Agriculture"
• 83 Bastida S, "Nutrición y obesidad" 3 : 49-58, 1999
• 84 Goñi I, "Nori seaweed consumption modifies glycemic response in healthy volunteers" 20 : 1367-1375, 2000
• 85 Greger JL, "Nondigestible carbohydrates and mineral bioavailability" 129 : 1434-1435, 1999
• 86 Kanazawa S, "Noncobalamin vitamin B12 analogues in human red cells, liver, and brain" 37 : 774-777, 1983
• 87 Honya M, "Monthly determination of alginate, M/G ratio, mannitol and minerals in cultivated Laminaria japonica" 59 : 295-299, 1993
• 88 Anderson JJB, "Minerales In Nutrición y Dietoterapia de Krause" McGraw-Hill Interamericana 120-165, 2001
• 89 Rupérez P, "Mineral content of edible marine seaweeds" 79 : 23-26, 2002
• 90 Kay RA, "Microalgae as food and supplement" 30 : 555-573, 1991
• 91 von Engelhardt W, "Meyer zu Düttingdorf HD, Busche R: Role of short-chain fatty acids in the hind gut" 20 : 52-59, 1998
• 92 Sánchez-Muniz FJ, "Metabolic and physiological effects of phytosterol consumption. In: Bioavailability of Micronutrients and Minor Dietary Compounds. Metabolic and Technological Aspects" Research Signpost 83-94, 2003
• 93 Colombo ML, "Marine macroalgae as sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids" 61 : 67-72, 2006
• 94 Lahayen M, "Marine algae as sources of fibres: determination of soluble and insoluble dietary fibre contents in some sea vegetables" 54 : 587-594, 1991
• 95 Pak N, "Macroalgas marinas comestibles de Chile como fuente de fibra alimentaria: efecto en la digestibilidad aparente de proteínas, fibra y energía y peso de deposiciones en ratas" 46 : 42-46, 1996
• 96 Sánchez-Muniz FJ, "Lípidos In Nutrición y Dietética" Secretariado de Publicaciones y Medios Audiovisales, Universidad de León 119-133, 2003
• 97 Arasaki A, "Low Calories, High Nutrition. Vegetables from the Sea to Help You Look and Feel Better" Japan Publications Inc. 39-42, 1983
• 98 Seibin A, "Les Légumes de Mer. Comment Être et Paraître en Forme" Guy Tredaniél & la Maisnie 1985
• 99 Mendoza ML, "Las macroalgas marinas bentónicas de la Argentina" 9 (9): 40-49, 1999
• 100 Toth GB, "Lack of phlorotannin induction in the kelp Laminaria hyperborea in response to grazing by two gastropod herbivores" 140 : 403-409, 2002
• 101 Boussiba S, "Isolation and characterization of phycocyanins from the bluegreen alga Spirulina platensis" 120 : 155-159, 1979
• 102 Zeng F, "Isolation and characterization of Rphycocyanin from Polysiphonia urceolata" 116 : 594-596, 1984
• 103 Myklestad S, "Ion-exchange properties of brown algae. I. Determination of rate mechanism for calcium–hydrogen ion exchange for particles from Laminaria hyperborea and Laminaria digitata" 18 : 30-36, 1968
• 104 Wolff J, "Iodine goitre and the pharmacological effects of excess iodine" 47 : 101-124, 1969
• 105 Bold CH, "Introduction to the Algae" Prentice-Hall 1-33, 1985
• 106 Pavia H, "Intraspecific variation in the phlorotannin content of the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum" 42 : 378-383, 2003
• 107 Connan S, "Intra-thallus phlorotannin content and antioxidant activity in Phaeophyceae of temperate waters" 49 : 39-46, 2006
• 108 Peckol P, "Interactive effects of inducible defense and resource availability on phlorotannins in the North Atlantic brown alga Fucus vesiculosus" 138 : 209-217, 1996
• 109 Kang HS, "Inhibitory phlorotannins from the edible brown alga Ecklonia stolonifera on total reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation" 27 : 194-198, 2004
• 110 Shibata T, "Inhibitory effects of brown algal phlorotannins on secretory phospholipase A2s, lipoxygenases and cycloxygenases" 15 : 61-66, 2003
• 111 Shibata T, "Inhibitory activity of brown algal phlorotannins against hyaluronidase" 37 : 703-709, 2002
• 112 Kritchevsky D, "Influence of dietary fibre on cholesterol metabolism in experimental animals In Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition" CRC Press 163-178, 1993
• 113 Bastida S, "Influence of Wakame addition on the technological and nutricional properties of a gel/emulsion meta derivate system [poster 81]" International Developments in Science and Health Claims 2007
• 114 Swanson AK, "Induction, exudation and the UV protective role of kelp phlorotannins" 73 : 241-253, 2002
• 115 Ohta A, "Increase in calcium and magnesium absorption from the colon and rectum of rats fed fructooligosaccharides" 125 : 2417-2424, 1995
• 116 Zhang Q, "In vivo antioxidant activity of polysaccharide fraction from Porphyra haitanensis (Rhodephyta) in aging mice" 48 : 151-155, 2003
• 117 Michel C, "In vitro fermentation by human faecal bacteria of total and purified fibres from brown seaweeds" 75 : 263-280, 1996
• 118 Beynen AC, "Hypo-and hyperresponders: individual differences in the response of serum cholesterol concentration to change in diet" 22 : 115-117, 1987
• 119 Krotkiewski M, "Hipertensión leve tratada con un preparado de algas marinas intercambiador de iones sodio-potasio" 1 : 6-11, 1997
• 120 García-Casal MN, "High iron content and bioavailability in humans from four species of marine algae" 137 : 2691-2695, 2007
• 121 Jiménez-Colmenero F, "Healthier lipid formulation approaches in meat based functional foods. Technological options for replacement of meat fats by non-meat fats" 18 : 567-578, 2007
• 122 Dreher ML, "Handbook of Dietary Fibre. An Applied Approach" Marcel Dekker 1987
• 123 Ros E, "Guía para una alimentación cardiosaludable. Aporte de grasa. In Guías Alimentarias para la Población Española. Recomendaciones para una DietaSaludable" Sociedad Española de la Nutrición Comunitaria, International Marketing & Communications 413-421, 2001
• 124 Bilan MI, "Grachev AA, Ustuzhanina NE, Shashkov AS, Nifantiev NE, Usov AI: Structure of a fucoidan from the brown seaweed Fucus evanescens" 337 : 719-730, 2002
• 125 Dembitsky VM, "Glycolipids and fatty acids of some seaweeds and marine grasses from the black sea" 30 : 2279-2283, 1991
• 126 Arvanitoyannis IS, "Functional foods: a survey of health claims, pros and cons,and current legislation" 45 : 385-404, 2005
• 127 Glombitza KW, "Fuhalols and deshydroxyfuhalols from the brown alga Sargassum spinuligerum" 38 : 987-995, 1995
• 128 Yan X, "Fucoxanthin as the major antioxidant in Hizikia fusiformis, a common edible seaweed" 63 : 605-607, 1999
• 129 Sánchez-Machado DI, "Fatty acids, total lipid, protein and ash contents of processed edible seaweeds" 85 : 439-444, 2004
• 130 Fleurence J, "Fatty acids from 11 marine macroalgae of the French Brittany coast" 6 : 527-532, 1994
• 131 Sánchez-Muniz FJ, "Fat and protein from olive oil fried sardines interact to normalize serum lipoproteins and liver lipids in hypercholesterolemic rats" 133 : 2302-2308, 2003
• 132 Bobin-Dubigeon C, "Factors limiting the biodegradation of Ulva sp. cell-wall polysaccharides" 75 : 341-351, 1997
• 133 Yuan YV, "Extracts from Dulse (Palmaria palmata) are effective antioxidants and inhibitors of cell proliferation in vitro" 43 : 1073-1082, 2005
• 134 Raja R, "Exploitation of Dunaliella for beta-carotene production" 74 : 517-523, 2007
• 135 Phaneuf D, "Evaluation of the contamination of marine algae (seaweed) from the St. Lawrence River and likely to be consumed by humans" 80 : S175-S182, 1999
• 136 Parys S, "Evaluation of quantitative methods for the determination of polyphenols in algal extracts" 70 : 1865-1870, 2007
• 137 Pellett PL, "Evaluation of protein quality in experimental animals. In: Nutritional Evaluation of Protein Foods, Vol. 4" The United National University, World Hunger Programme Food and Nutrition 41-57, 1980
• 138 Jiménez-Escrig A, "Evaluación nutricional y efectos fisiológicos de macroalgas marinas comestibles" 49 : 114-120, 1999
• 139 Aguilera J, "Enzymatic defences against photooxidative stress induced by ultraviolet radiation in Arctic marine macroalgae" 25 : 432-441, 2002
• 140 Food and Agriculture Organization, "El Estado Mundial de la Pesca y la Acuicultura. Departamento de la Pesca de la FAO (Roma)" Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Pesca yla Alimentación 2006
• 141 Gudiel-Urbano M, "Effect of edible seaweeds (Undaria pinnatifida and Porphyra tenera) on the metabolic activities of intestinal microflora in rats" 22 : 323-331, 2002
• 142 Maruyama H, "Effect of dietary kelp on lipid peroxidation and glutathione peroxidase activity in livers of rats given breast carcinogen DMBA" 15 : 221-228, 1991
• 143 Watanabe F, "Dried green and purple lavers (Nori) contain substantial amounts of biologically active vitamin B12 but less of dietary iodine relative to other edible seaweeds" 47 : 2341-2343, 1999
• 144 Sánchez-Muniz FJ, "Dobarganes G: Effects of heating and frying on oil and food fatty acids. In: Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications, 3rd ed" CRC Press 511-543, 2007
• 145 Yoshie Y, "Distribution of catechins in Japanese seaweeds" 66 : 998-1000, 2000
• 146 Suzuki T, "Digestibility of dietary fibre in brown alga Konbu by rats" 59 : 879-884, 1993
• 147 Kishi K, "Digestibility and energy availability of sea vegetables and fungi in man" 26 : 183-192, 1982
• 148 Bocanegra A, "Differential effects of Konbu and Nori seaweed dietary supplementation on liver glutathione status in normo- and hypercholesterolaemic growing rats" 95 : 696-702, 2006
• 149 Munda IM, "Differences in amino acid composition of estuarine and marine fucoids" 3 : 273-280, 1977
• 150 Bocanegra A, "Diets containing a high percentage of Nori or Konbu algae are well-accepted and efficiently utilised by growing rats but induce different degrees of histological changes in the liver and bowel" 41 : 1473-1480, 2003
• 151 Shimazu T, "Dietary patterns and cardiovascular disease mortality in Japan: a prospective cohort study" 36 : 600-609, 2007
• 152 Goñi I, "Dietary modulation of bacterial fermentative capacity by edible seaweeds in rats" 49 : 2663-2668, 2001
• 153 Birkett AM, "Dietary intake and faecal excretion of carbohydrate by Australians: importance of achieving stool weights greater than 150 g to improve faecal markers relevant to colon cancer risk" 51 : 625-632, 1997
• 154 Lairon D, "Dietary fibres: effects on lipid metabolism and mechanisms of action" 50 : 125-133, 1996
• 155 Jenkins DJ, "Dietary fibres, fibre analogues, and glucose tolerance: importance of viscosity" 1 : 1392-1394, 1978
• 156 James SL, "Dietary fibre: a roughage guide" 33 : 291-296, 2003
• 157 Jiménez-Escrig A, "Dietary fibre from edible seaweeds: chemical structure physicochemical properties and effects on cholesterol metabolism" 20 : 585-598, 2000
• 158 Suzuki T, "Dietary fibre content, water holding capacity and binding capacity of seaweeds" 62 : 454-461, 1996
• 159 Rupérez P, "Dietary fibre and physicochemical properties of edible Spanish seaweeds" 212 : 349-354, 2001
• 160 Brunner EJ, "Dietary advice for reducing cardiovascular risk" 4 : CD002128-, 2007
• 161 American Heart Association Nutrition Committee, "Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee" 114 : 82-96, 2006
• 162 Piovetto L, "Determination of sterols and diterpenoids from brown algae (Cystoseiraceae)" 588 : 99-105, 1991
• 163 Munilla Suarez MA, "Determination of metals in seaweeds used as food by inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission spectrometry" 23 : 463-466, 1995
• 164 Rodríguez-Bernaldo de Quirós A, "Determination of folates in seaweeds by high-performance liquid chromatography" 1032 : 135-139, 2004
• 165 Hou XL, "Determination of chemical species of iodine in some seaweeds (I)" 204 : 215-221, 1997
• 166 Gómez-Pinilla I, "Determinación de Yodo en Algas Utilizadas en Alimentación Mediante Electrodo Selectivo a Iones [Thesis de Laurea]. Facultad de Farmacia" Universidad Complutense de Madrid 1994
• 167 Amsler CD, "Defensive and sensory chemical ecology of brown algae" 43 : 1-91, 2006
• 168 Nikaido M, "Decreased enzyme activity of hepatic thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase in rabbits by prolonged exposure to inorganic arsenate" 18 : 306-311, 2003
• 169 Mabeau S, "De L’Orient à L’Occident: les principaux marchés, le charme discret des macro-algues" 3 : 24-29, 1990
• 170 Weginwar RG, "Correlation between serum cholesterols and trace element uptake in liver, kidney, and blood of hypercholesterolemic mice" 86 : 249-268, 2002
• 171 Klevay LM, "Coronary heart disease: the zinc/copper hypothesis" 28 : 764-770, 1975
• 172 Augier H, "Contribution a l’étude de la composition en azote total, en proteines et en acides amines proteiques des diferentes parties du thalle de Laminaria digitata (Huds.). Lamour dans le cadre de son exploitation industrielle et agricole" 23 : 19-28, 1978
• 173 Yamade S, "Content and characteristics of vitamin B12 in some seaweeds" 42 : 497-505, 1996
• 174 Cumashi A, "Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Bio-Oncologia (CINBO): A comparative study of the anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antiangiogenic, and antiadhesive activities of nine different fucoidans from brown seaweeds" 17 : 541-552, 2007
• 175 Mahaffey KR, "Concurrent exposure to lead, cadmium, and arsenic. Effects on toxicity and tissue metal concentrations in the rat" 98 : 463-481, 1981
• 176 Ashwell M, "Concepts of functional foods. In: ILSI Europe Concise Monograph Series" International Life Sciences Institute 1-39, 2002
• 177 Conchillo A, "Componentes funcionales en aceite de pescado y de alga" 21 : 369-373, 2006
• 178 Vanitha A, "Comparative study of lipid composition of two halotolerant alga, Dunaliella bardawil and Dunaliella salina" 58 : 373-382, 2007
• 179 Cadden AM, "Comparative effects of particle size reduction on physical structure and water binding properties of several plant fibres" 52 : 1595-1599, 1987
• 180 Albarracin C, "Combination of chromium and biotin improves coronary risk factors in hypercholesterolemic type 2 diabetes mellitus: a placebo-controlled, double-blind randomized clinical trial" 2 : 91-97, 2007
• 181 Mahfouz MM, "Cholesterol-rich diets have different effects on lipid peroxidation, cholesterol oxides, and antioxidant enzymes in rats and rabbits" 11 : 293-302, 2000
• 182 Lindsey Zemke-White W, "Chlorophyte and rhodophyte starches as factors in diet choice by marine herbivorous fish" 240 : 1137-1149, 1999
• 183 Percival EGV, "Chemistry and Enzymology of Marine Algal Polysaccharides" Academic Press 1967
• 184 Bobin-Dubigeon C, "Chemical composition, physicochemical properties, enzymatic inhibition and fermentative characteristics of dietary fibres from edible seaweeds" 17 : 619-639, 1997
• 185 Risso S, "Chemical composition and seasonal fluctuations of the edible green seaweed, Monostroma undulatum, Wittrock, from the Southern Argentina coast" 53 : 306-311, 2003
• 186 Fleury N, "Chemical and physiochemical characterization of fibres from Laminaria digitata (Konbu Breton): a physiological approach" 5 : 389-400, 1991
• 187 Watanabe F, "Characterization of a vitamin B12 compound in the edible purple laver, Porphyra yezoensis" 64 : 2712-2715, 2000
• 188 Harada K, "Changes of aminoacid composition of Nori, Porphyra spp. during storage" 56 : 606-612, 1990
• 189 Yoshie Y, "Changes in the contents of dietary fibres, minerals, free amino acids, and fatty acids during processing of dry Nori" 60 : 117-123, 1994
• 190 Wong KH, "Changes in lipid profiles of rats fed with seaweed-based diets" 19 : 1519-1527, 1999
• 191 Lewin RA, "Cell walls. In: Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae" Academic Press 315-335, 1962
• 192 Haugan JA, "Carotenoids of brown algae (Phaeophycae)" 22 : 31-41, 1994
• 193 Dumelod BD, "Carbohydrate availability of arroz caldo with lambda-carrageenan" 50 : 283-289, 1999
• 194 Anderson JW, "Carbohydrate and fiber recommendations for individuals with diabetes: a quantitative assessment and meta-analysis of the evidence" 23 : 5-17, 2004
• 195 Solimabi B, "Bromine and iodine content in sponges and algae of the Andaman Sea" 10 : 301-302, 1981
• 196 Thurman RG, "Biotransformation and zonal toxicity. In: Regulations of Hepatic Metabolism, Intraand Intercellular Compartmentation" Plenum Press 321-382, 1986
• 197 Figueira MM, "Biosorption of metals in brown seaweed biomass" 34 : 196-204, 2000
• 198 Mouradi-Givernaud A, "Biology and agar composition of Gelidium sesquipedale harvested along the Atlantic coast of Morocco" 339 : 391-395, 1999
• 199 Polat S, "Biochemical composition of some red and brown macro algae from the Northeastern Mediterranean Sea" 12 : 1-7, 2007
• 200 Shaw NS, "Bioavailability of iron from purple laver (Porphyra spp.) estimated in a rat hemoglobin regeneration biossay" 48 : 1734-1737, 2000
• 201 Ross R, "Atherosclerosis: an inflammatory disease" 340 : 115-126, 1999
• 202 Goñi I, "Aspectos Fisiológicos de la Fibra Alimentaria" Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo 1990
• 203 Qasim R, "Ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid contents of marine algal species from Karachi" 28 : 129-133, 1985
• 204 Kunito T, "Arsenic in marine mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles" 195 : 31-69, 2008
• 205 Ergueta-Martínez A, "Análisis elemental de algas empleadas en alimentación, mediante espectrometrías ICP [Thesis de Laurea].Facultad de Farmacia" Universidad Complutense de Madrid 2001
• 206 Le Tutour B, "Antioxidative activities of algal extracts, synergistic effect with vitamin E" 29 : 3759-3765, 1990
• 207 KeejongKang, "Antioxidative Properties of Brown Algae Polyphenolics and Their Perspectives as Chemopreventive Agents Against Vascular Risk Factors" 대한약학회 26 (26): 286-293, 2003
• 208 Nakayama R, "Antioxidant effect of the constituents of Susabinori (Porphyra yezoensis)" 76 : 649-653, 1999
• 209 Nakamura T, "Antioxidant activity of phlorotannins isolated from the brown alga Eisenia bicyclis" 62 : 923-926, 1996
• 210 Ren D, "Antihypertensive and antihyperlipidemic effects of Funoran" 60 : 423-427, 1994
• 211 Pengzhan Y, "Antihyperlipidemic effects of different molecular weight sulphated polysaccharides from Ulva pertusa (Chlorophyta)" 48 : 543-549, 2003
• 212 Indergaard M, "Animal and human nutrition. In: Seaweed Resources in Europe. Uses and Potential" John Wiley & Sons 21-64, 1991
• 213 Xie SJ, "Analysis of Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn in algae" 23 : 615-616, 2003
• 214 Dawczynski C, "Amino acids, fatty acids, and dietary fibre in edible seaweed products" 103 : 891-899, 2006
• 215 Arterburn LM, "Algal-oil capsules and cooked salmon: nutritionally equivalent sources of docosahexaenoic acid" 108 : 1204-1209, 2008
• 216 Young VR, "Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a majorrevision in current recommendations" 124 : 1517-1523, 1994
• 217 Olivero-David R, "Aceptabilidad y efectos de cárnicos funcionales con Wakame sobre ingesta y crecimiento de ratas Wistar" 1 (1): 94-95, 2008
• 218 Krauss RM, "AHA Dietary Guidelines: revision 2000: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association" 31 : 2751-2766, 2000
• 219 Whittle KJ, "A vital role for aquatic resources in feeding a hungry world" 44 : 19-29, 1985
• 220 Haug A, "A study of the constitution of alginic acid by partial acid hydrolysis" 20 : 183-190, 1966
• 221 Chizhov AO, "A study of fucoidan from the brown seaweed Chorda filum" 320 : 108-119, 1999
• 222 Davis TA, "A review of the biochemistry of heavy metal biosorption by brown algae" 37 : 4311-4330, 2003
• 223 Chevolot L, "A disaccharide repeat unit is the major structure in fucoidans from two species of brown algae" 330 : 529-535, 2001
• 224 Matsukawa R, "A comparison of screening methods for antioxidant activity in seaweeds" 9 : 29-35, 1997
• 225 Nishimura Y, "A case of carotenodermia caused by a diet of the dried seaweed called Nori" 25 : 685-687, 1998
• 226 Bocanegra A, "A Nori but not a Konbu, dietary supplement decreases the cholesterolaemia,liver fat infiltration and mineral bioavailability in hypercholesterolaemic growing Wistar rats" 99 : 272-280, 2008