高麗時代 水月觀音菩薩圖 圖像 研究 = A study on the iconography of Koryo water-moon Avalokitesvara paintings

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara (水月觀音菩薩) is a bodhisattva that has been transmitted through painting images, inscriptions (銘文) or written records without reliance sutra (所衣經典), and the origin and name of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara and the establishment of its iconography are generally unknown. Only the existence of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara Sutra (水月觀音經) in around the 10th century is conjectured. Extant sutras and records, the form of faith in those days, the Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings excavated in Dunhuang, etc. suggest that Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara was created based on Lotus Sutra (法華經), Samanta‐mukha‐parivarta (普門品), Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經), and The Chapter of Entering the Dharma Realm (入法界品) and with
the addition of the significance of ‘water‐moon (水月)’ as a result of the absorption of
surrounding cultures.
As to the iconographic origin of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara, moreover, Zhou Fang (周昉) who was active in the late 8th century is generally believed to be the originator of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings, but this opinion needs to be reexamined. It is also less likely that Zhou Fang’s Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings became the models of 10th‐century Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings found in Dunhuang. Moreover, the large diversity of icons in the Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings from Dunhuang suggests that there would not be any specific icon regarded as Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara in those days. Among the Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings excavated in Dunhuang, however, some show water surface and fantastically shaped rocks on the background and the theme of painting. Therefore, it is believed that such iconography might have developed continuously afterwards and been established later. It is also thought that to
the basic iconography, images such as Sudhana, dragon (龍), and characteristic figures were added as a result of the popularity of Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經) and The Chapter of Entering the Dharma Realm (入法界品), and Indian‐ink Avalokitesvara paintings (墨觀音圖) were popular with the rise of Zen Buddhism (禪宗). Among many different Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings, those from the period of Western Xia show a strong connection to Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings in terms of overall iconography and detailed characteristic icons.
It is unclear when and how Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings were introduced to Korea. It is only conjectured through Vol. 18 of Daegakguksamunjip (大覺國師文集) and poetic texts in Hwagukwongongchansinhwaseong Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara (和國原公讚新畵成 水月觀音) that they might have been transmitted at latest before the late 11th century. In consideration of the acceptance and popularity of Avalokitesvara faith during the Period of the Three Kingdoms and the established form of iconography in the 13th‐14th centuries, moreover, Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings are believed to have been imported to Korea earlier than the Koryo Dynasty and they are related to iconography in the Sung Dynasty (宋代) and the period of Western Xia (西夏時代).
Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings are largely classified into forms in three ways according to iconographic characteristics. That is, they are classification according to the contents of expression, according to the posture of Avalokitesvara, and according to composition. According to the contents of expression, moreover, they may be classified into four forms. First, the most general and frequent form is that Avalokitesvara is situated between fantastically shaped rocks (奇巖怪石), a ritual ewer beside, bamboos behind, and Sudhana on the bottom looking up Avalokitesvara. The second form adds characteristic figures to the first form, and the ground of this iconography can be found in Samgukyusa. The third form adds the contents of Samantamukha‐
parivarta in Lotus Sutra to the basic form, and the fourth includes other forms of unique iconography.
According to posture, most of the paintings have a half‐seated image (半跏坐像形), and according to composition, most of them follow the composition of the Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara Painting (水月觀音圖) I at Sen‐oku Hakuko Kan (泉屋博古館) created in 1323. When one work was sampled from each form of the paintings and its iconography was examined, it was found that most of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings show certain regularity. That is, some rules were confirmed not only in the posture of Avalokitesvara but also in dress, accessories, background, etc.
Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings use characteristic icons such as Sudhana, twin bamboos, and the moon (with a rabbit pounding in a mortar under a cinnamon tree). The use of these objects distinguishes Koryo Avalokitesvara paintings from those in the neighbor countries. In addition, ritual ewers and bamboos are depicted realistically, and differences in iconography according to the date of creation are evident.
The composition of Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings is basically diagonal and symmetric, and vertical and horizontal lines and circles form harmony in the composition. In terms of form, they exhibit delicate efforts to give a fine threedimensional effect. With the lapse of time, however, they tended to be patterned and two‐dimensional. With regard to strokes, mainly iron wire‐like texture strokes are used and different kinds of brush techniques are also observed.
As to color, the number of colors used is not large. Main colors are blue, green, red and yellow, and white (pale yellow) and gold are used for softening color contrast. In addition, various patterns are observed on the canvas, and they show certain uniform rules in each part and in type.
Among about 40 Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings, the time of creation is known only for two the painting at the Kagami Jinjya (鏡神社) created in 1310 and that painting I at Sen‐oku Hakuko Kan (泉屋博古館) created in 1323. For the other Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings, the exact date of creation is unknown. Considering the historical situation of Koryo, records in Samgukyusa, and the iconography of the Koryo Dynasty Buddhist paintings, most of them are believed to have been created during the late period of the Koryo Dynasty. About 40 of Koryo Water‐Moon
Avalokitesvara paintings show similar iconographic forms, but variation in style is observed within them and this suggests their chronological difference. The chronology of about 40 Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings was estimated based on the two Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings with its time of creation known and based on the iconography of Koryo Buddhist paintings with the date of creation known. It was attempted to determine more objective chronology through the comparative analysis of detailed iconography.
According to the results, most of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings were similar to the Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings in 1310 and 1323, and were believed to have been created at latest before 1350. The chronology was divided largely into three periods: Period I, around 1300 (1270~1315); Period II, the first half of the 14th century (1315~1350); and Period III, the second half of the 14th century (1350~1392).
The paintings at Sensoji Temple (淺草寺), Janggok‐sa Temple (長谷寺), etc. were considered to be from Period I as they showed iconographic differences in general and detailed icons from Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings in the early 14th century. In addition, most of Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings were not much different from the iconography of the painting of 1310 at Kagami Jinjya (鏡神社) and the painting I of 1323 at Sen‐oku Hakuko Kan (泉屋博古館), so they were believed to have been created in similar times.
Some including the painting at MOA Museum of Art were different not only in overall iconography but also in detailed icons, so they were presumed to have been created somewhat later. Nevertheless, their iconographic differences from the previous ones were not significant and, therefore, they were also classified into Period II.
However, the painting at Horim Museum showed a unique iconographic style, deeper schematization, and distorted forms, so it was presumed to be from Period III, namely, the second half of the 14th century.
As presented above, the iconography of Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings basically represented the mixed contents of Avatamsaka Sutra and Lotus Sutra and, thus, they mean the introduction of multiple sutras in Koryo Buddhist paintings. The extant 40 some Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings evidence the popularity of Avalokitesvara faith and resultant Avalokitesvara paintings. What is more, the uniform size of canvas suggests that Buddhist paintings were created for specific uses in those days, and similar iconography implies that Buddhist paintings were more transcribed (傳寫) than created in those days. In addition, conography and expression distinguished from those found in the neighbor countries indicate that Koryo Buddhist paintings had their own iconography and expression techniques. Rocks and bamboos painted on the background also allude to the influence of ordinary paintings, and this finding is highly meaningful in the history of Buddhist paintings.
This study systematized and classified the iconography of Koryo Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings, and examined each icon closely and, at the same time, analyzed the origin and development of detailed icons in order to estimate the process of establishment of iconography, to conjecture the date of creation objectively, and to discuss the iconographic characteristics of the paintings. As another significant outcome, furthermore, this study surveyed a number of original Water‐Moon Avalokitesvara paintings, and scrutinized and discussed their colors and other characteristics minutely.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 머리말 1
• 1. 연구목적 및 필요성 1
• 2. 연구범위과 방법 4
• Ⅱ. 수월관음보살의 기원 및 도상성립과 전개 7
• 1. 수월관음보살의 기원 7
• 2. 수월관음도의 도상성립 및 전개 13
• Ⅲ. 고려시대 수월관음도의 형식과 도상특징 40
• 1. 고려시대 수월관음도의 형식 44
• 2. 고려시대 수월관음도의 도상특징 51
• Ⅳ. 고려시대 수월관음도의 세부 특징 131
• 1. 선재동자 132
• 2. 정병/버들가지 144
• 3. 염주 170
• 4. 달 173
• 5. 대나무 186
• 6. 암석(기암괴석) 205
• 7. 수면 212
• Ⅴ. 고려시대 수월관음도의 양식특징과 편년 219
• 1. 고려시대 수월관음도의 양식특징 220
• 2. 고려시대 수월관음도의 편년 238
• Ⅵ. 고려시대 수월관음도의 불교회화사적 의의 252
• Ⅶ. 맺음말 257
• 【참고문헌】 264
• 【표목록】 275
• 【도판목록】 275
• 【참고도판】 286
• 【참고도판목록】 299
• 【ABSTRACT】 302
• 【부록】 307

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