愛國心에 관한 硏究 = A Study on Patriotism
저자
丁堯燮 (숙명여자대학교 政經大)
발행기관
학술지명
권호사항
발행연도
1982
작성언어
Korean
KDC
104.000
자료형태
학술저널
수록면
19-92(74쪽)
제공처
소장기관
Ⅰ. Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to examine the development of national education for patriotism, the trend of expanding national political consciousness, and finally democratically-oriented civic culture in the context of international cooperation and interdependence in which human care and understanding towards other human beings can be brought about. In order to shed some light on these humanistic ideals, this paper will attempt to study the history of the patriotic spirit in human civilization by elaborating the concept of "ethnocentrism," the patterns of patriotic spirit in the ancient and middle age as well as the concept of current patriotic feelings in modern times. This paper further analyzes the meaning and gist of the concept of patriotism, the relationship between the concepts of patriotism and democratic values, the imperative of reconciliation between the concept of nationalistic patriotism and internationalism, the types and characteristics of different patterns of patriotism, the typical viewpoints concerning patriotic education and finally the genuine kind of patriotism which can be constructive and productive not only in fostering international cooperation but also in national development. In consequence, this study attempts to draw some conclusions on the desired direction of patriotic education with a new mode of patriotics, by which current patriotic education in South Korea can be formulated in order to help produce democratically-oriented healthy Korea patriots in South Korea's current political setting.
Ⅱ. Historical Development of the Concept "Patriotism"
A. The Concept of Ethnocenthrism
In analyzing the concept of ethnocentrism, this paper focuses on the pattern of the ethnocentric mind in the Primitive and uncivilized society because the spiritual Pattern of the ethnocentric mind in the primitive and uncivilized society because the spiritual Pattern in this society may provide some clue in finding out the gist of patriotic mentality in modern times. The study comes to the general conclusion that national political consciousness and the patterns of behavior have resulted from the interaction between two groups, the primary group and the secondary group. The study also finds that the life of the Korean nation which has been under constant pressure from outside powers throughout its history has been based upon the development of a nationcentered patriotic ethos. This finding fits well into the argument elaborated by Sumner who interprets the term, ethnocentrism, which stands for the combination of ethnos meaning nation and center meaning the focal point of the world. he concept of ethnocentrism thus lies essentially in the idea the his/her own group would be their center of the world.
B. The Concept of Patriotism in the Ancicnt and Middle Ages
Patriotism as a spirit embodying devotion and affection towards his/her group has been a distinctive quality in the ancient and middle ages as compared to the concept of patriotism in modern times. The latter concept is more of an expanded entity of the nation-state. In the ancient and middle ages, the concept of today's state-oriented patriotism did not existed. This paper studies the concept of patriotism in the ancient and middle ages in a sense that it directed its concept of devotion and service to a collective community. Although the spirit of patriotism in these ages may lack the essential characteristics of the current ones, this study shows that the same principle of patriotic spirit can be found in these ages.
C. Patriotism in Modern Times
This study portrays the concept of patriotism as a sense of affection and an attitude of devotion to the entity to which the individuals maintained their loyaly. This concept of patriotism has a wide variety of definitions. If the concept is imposed in a narrow and specific sense, the object of patriotism shifts from a small group to a particular nation-state. It has been a trend at least for the past three hundred years that the concept of nations has become the basis of forming a state, which can be considered one of the most important political phenomena in modern times. In the contemporary world, the concept of individual affection and personal devotion has been transformed from a group concept to the nationstate. This phenomenon can be called a sort of narrowly defined national patriotism. The patriotic feeling of the individual today includes the following aspects in their psychological make-up: 1) a political conscionsness of the individuals belonging to a specific nation. 2) a tendency to be proud of existence of their nations, 3) a desire of political independence of their own nations, and finally, 4) a willingness to sacrifice his/her life for the realization of the ideals and gols of their nations. These compositions in the meaning of the word, patriotism, have become the gist o the concept, "Patriotism" in the contemporary world.
Ⅲ. The Gist of Patriotism
The concetp of patriotism has been widely used in a variety of politcal situations with a vast diversity in its meaning. As a result, the concept creates a controversial situation in which it is used as a means of justification for defending any peculiar political situation. The basic difficulties in formulating a correct definition of patriotism often stems from the logic that a nation as an object of common communities basically exists for the realization of collective happiness rather than an individual happiness. However, the priority of individual happiness should have precedence over the collective meaning of national welfare. When this basic premise is lacking, all kinds of patriotic sentiment may be utilized as a means to persecute individual rights. For example, some political ideologies such as the early socialist brand of Jacobinism and today's Communism are considered to manifest definite shortcomings in respecting human rights. Thus, it should be remembered that the genuine concept of patriotism should be based upon the harmonious combination of mutually supporting concepts of individualism, internationalism, and cosmopolitanism; individualism meaning the pursuit of the full development of individual talents, internationalism meaning the pursuit of national interests within the framework of international cooperation, and cosmopolitanism meaning the fostering of fraternal relations among all people in the world. It may be wrong to strictly divide the concepts of internationalism and cosmopolitanism as contrasting ideologies because these two concepts have resulted from the conversion of concerns not only for the expansion of national interests through practical policies and but also for building a wider network of a philanthropic world. In other words, the combination of these two ideologies, the pursuit of national interests within the framework of ethical world views should be the main gist of any constructive type of national education for patriotism.
Ⅳ. Patriotism and Democracy
Patriotism without the proper concern of democratic values may be easily developed into an aggressive militarism or indulgent anarchism. Patriotism should be fostered on the basis of democratic values including the human rights concept. In this sense, a patriotic education could minize its exclusive characteristics by decreasing the possibility of conflict with the concept of humanity. If patriotism could be incorporated with the values of democracy, it would greatly help prevent such distorted political movements as fascism, which mainly concentrates on the fostering of the absolute value of his/her own nation with a sense of superiority to other nations. Fascism was developed into an excessive nationalistic fervor in which it attempts to conquer the world and destroy humanity by ignoring the human rights of others. However attractive this type of patriotism is, patriotism can only become productive and constructive when the concept is based on the values of democracy.
Ⅴ. Patriotism and Internationalism
The study attenpts to shed some light on whether patriotism and internationalism can be reconciled smoothly by clarifying the relationship between the two concepts. It is generally accepted that there are two kinds of patriotic feelings. The first is a narrow-minded one only concentrating on the promotion of national interest in an exclusive manner in the world political environment. This type can be interpreted as a kind of egotism on a national level. The second type is to promote national interest with the consideration of interests of other. This second type can be called a sort of realizing the international collective good. The first type of patriotic feeling would be incompatible with the concept of internationlism. In this situation, internationationalism may be considered an unpatriotic attitude. For instance, Japan up until the time of its surrender in 1945 interpreted an internationalistic attitude among its people as an anti-patriotic attitude toward its nation.
The second type of internationalism-oriented patriotic feeling can further be dvided into two categories in the light of the relationships of the indiveduals and their state. The first category looks to the individuals as basic units of the world. It also looks to the world community consisting of individuals. Thus, the development of the world is ultimately dependent upon the development of the individual. By the same token, the cooperative spirit among individuals is the basic developmental unit of the world. Thus, the world community and its development can be fostered by the growth of cooperative spirit among individuals.
On the other hand, the second category looks to nations as basic units of the world being composed by individuals. This second view maintains its logic based upon the existence of states. In this view, states are considered to be basic units of the world and the world's development is being pursued by the cooperation of states. Thus, the development of the world will be ultimately dependent upon the expansion of mutual interests and benefit through the cooperation of states.
In general, it has been accepted that the concept of nationalism and internationalism are of ten incompatible with each other. To be Sure, extreme types of nationalistic policies often become incompatible with the cooperative spirit in internationalism. Yet, a moderate and cooperative type of nationalistic policy within the garb of nationalism can not always be considered to be in conflict with the constructive side of internationalism. The harmonious type of nationalistic policies may be able to promote national intersts withhim the framework of respecting others' intersts. Thus, it can be argued that internationalism and moderate types of nationalism can go together side by side. In other words, the constructive type of patriotism will not be incompatible with internationalism. Thus, internationalism can be attained through the implementation of the moderate cooperative national policies of each country.
Ⅵ. Some Examples of Patriots in History
The typical list of patriots in history would include Socrates, Fichte, Joan of Arc Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Grundtvig. All of these patriots devoted their lifelong efforts to their nations. For example, Garibaldi devoted his life to the nation-building of Italy from a state of segmentarily organized political elements whereas Grundtvig played a major role in creating a national consciousness among his people in Denmark by implementing mass education.
Ⅶ. Charateristics of Different Types of Patriotism
The variety of patriotism prevalent in modern times with respect to their charactertistics may be grouped as follows.
1) Spontaneous, Emotional Type
This type of patriotism can be found in most societies, East and West, and one of the most prevalent types in today's world political system. Whenever patriotism is being discussed, this type is usually the one referred to.
2) Reactionary Competitive Type
This type of patriotism occurs when two national entities compete with each other especially within the context of different cultural orientations. The type utilizes nationalistic sentiments to promote a collective national effort to highten national capabilities vis-a-vis therival power. Their situation can be further exacerbated by the competition of two different sets of cultural values.
3) Exclusive, Destructive Type
This type directs its national attention to the expansion of its own power at the expense of other nations with the assumption that its national values are superior to others'. This type can easily develop into a chauvinistic type of national policy. In some cases, this type will become destructive by initiating an armed aggression in order to destroy the value of the other power. Even today, this type of patriotic policy can be found in some specific cases in the form of conflicts of narrowly-defined national interests.
4) Rational Type
This type analyzes the situation of one's own country within the context of the world political environment as harmoniously as possible. For example, the Korean nation can benefit from interpreting the world power configuration in a way so as to harmonize the nationalistic policies of both Koreas.
5) Pragmatic Type
This type of patriotism tends to interpret the effect of nationalistic sentiment in the light of spurring a fast development of its nation. In other words, the logic of utility will determine the desired derection of patriotic feeling among the people. In this sense, utilitarianism and egotism produce quite a distinctive imprint in the make-up of patriotic character. This type can easily be found in the case of Great Britain and the United States which at least in part resulted from their utility-oriented political culture.
6) Egotistic Type
This type is based upon the concept of egotism-i.e., nations implement patriotic policies on the basis of their egotistically calculated valuation of national inserests. This type of patriotism together with the exclusive and destructive type usually concentrate on the expansion of national interes without due regard to international norms and rules.
7) Humanistic Type
This type pursues the promotion of the ethical level of one's own nation by cultvating a humanistic notion towards mankind. In so doing, it further attempts achieve humane ideals on earch. This type of patriotism can pave the way to the achievement of world peace and human welfare.
Ⅷ. National Patriotic Education
The types of patriotic education can be divided into two categories.
1) Directing Type
The directing type of patriotic education takes a mode of influence among people by fostering the spirit of patriotism within societal members. The groups who influence ordinary people usually consist of people in power and the people who are being influenced are the general public. The mode of influence in this type takes the form of teaching students with a specific value system through textbook organization as well as through the role of mass media. Such media as broadcasting, newspapers, and other public bulletins can create social slogans and images according to the people in power. More often, nations who are weak in national power and backward in cultural development seem to spend more of their national energies on the education of patriotism among the people. The directive type of patriotic education can be further broken down into two types.
a) Forceful Type
This type can be found in the Soviet system. The contents of the school textbooks in Communist states are utilized for the socialization of citizens with specific values. For example the study of history, national geography, and language focuses upon the formation of the exclusive national ideology and the story of national heroes are repeated in lesson processes in order to socialize the youth with nationalistic values. From the Meiji Restoration in 1867 to the end of the Pacific War in 1945, Japan was indulged in such a nationalistic indoctrination process.
b) Psychologically Imposed-Type
This type is based on a more subtle way of indoctrination processes for the cultivation of patriotic feelings. It imposes an indirect psychological effect on the people through the utiliz ation of national films and songs in order to disguise outride imposition. In other words, this, type aims at planting specific ideas to people in a seemingly voluntary fashion.
2) Encouraging Type
The encouraging type is conducting its education for patriotism among people through a more or less voluntary basis. The directing type imposes its patriotic education through an express teaching whereas the encouraging type takes educational modes in such a way as indirect, subtle, and latent process of internalization. Usually, the countries who maintain their self-confidence in national capabilities as well as cultural richness engage in this type of patriotic education. Furthermore, such fortunate countries do not have to emphasize the education for patriotism without using too often the word in their educational processes. The encuraging type can also be broken down into the following two headings.
a) Latent Type
The nations belonging to this type have achieved the highest stage of cultural development and national power in the contemporary world setting. They do not manifest any specific patriotic education. These countries seem to assume that through a general mass education, the feeling of patriotism would naturally be created among the people. In fact, they do not ignore the importance of patriotic education but they do not concentrate on the spread of patriotic sentiment among the people openly. Their national education is organized in such way as to encourage patriotic feelings among the people naturally.
b) Spontaneous Type
This type does not implement any specific patriotic education perse. The countries belonging to this type seem to believe that their level of national development and power have already reached a firstclass level in the world. In this situation, the sense of patriotism would flourish among the people even without any particular patriotic education. These countries neither discuss whether patriotic education would be desirable or not on the national level nor talk about patriotism openly. Essentially most citizens of these countries maintain their sense of patriotism in their heart Great Britain and France are examples belonging to this category.
In addition, this paper raises the value of moral standards in the education of patriotism. The ideal patriotic education must incorporate high moral values in the education. There are two distinctive phases of patriotic education. The first kind is a patriotic education during national crises such as foreign aggression or the situation of possible national annihilation. In this case, national patriotic education should embody the wisdom of the past generations of its history. In other words, it should be analyzed how the previous generations had managed each national crisis in its history. The second phase is patriotic education in peace time. In this case, the patriotic education should be drected towards the maximum promotion of national prestige coupled with the growth of national capabilities. These two phases of patriotic eiducation during the time of peace and war should constitute the entire structure of any national patriotic education.
Ⅳ) Conclusion
The ideal type of national political education in conntries like South Korea may have to involve the following traits; 1) A systematized anti-Communist education especially in relation to the reunification issue, 2) the creation of national ideology reconciling the political need of South Korea with the preservation of democratic values, 3) harmonious ideological education incorporating nationalism, internationalism, and cosmopolitanism. It seems to be imperative that South Korea may have to formulate its political educatonal program far superior to the North by utilizing a wide of opportunities existing in open society.
he genuine type of patriotism may have to involve the following points: 1) loyalty to the nation rather than to specific leaders, 2) the respect of human rights, 3) the elimination of the exclusive tendency of patriotism, 4) an effort to cultivate a cooperative spirit among people in the world in order to avoid a war of destruction of the entire world, 5) the preservation of democratic values, 6) incremental improvements throuh reforms and anti-corruption movements resulting in rationalism, creativity, re-evaluativity, reformativity, and constructivity, 7) efforts for purification and self-enlightenment in order to root out any exclusive tendencies.
South Korea should strive for the promotion of a national spirit and national interest by formulationg a harmonious reconciliation of nationalism, internationalism and cosmopolitanism for the betterment of the world. These ideal goals may be achieved by incorporating the following concepts: 1) the respect of, and belelf in humanism 2) the spirit of generosity together with the acceptance of constructive criticisim, 3) the preservation of rationalism and democratic values. 4) the respect of public order, and 5) an effort to promote individual freedom and responsibility.
In addition, the education of Korean ethics should include the following concepts: 1) the security of South Korea, 2) anti-Comminism, 3) democracy 4) social justice, 5) the formation of the community 6) the consciousness of the Korean nation 7) pride in the national tradition of Korea, 8) the spirit of selfreliance, 9) the preservation of public order, 10) the high standard of moral principles 11) the spirit of self-restraint, 12) the spirit of frugality, 13) the habit of laboriousness, 14) the habit of punctuality, and 15) protection of the national environment. The variety of concepts listed above, if they were incorporated into the mentality of the Korean nation, would greatly help the South Koreans cope with their current national difficulties. In such a make-up, the South Koreans may be able to solve more problems in the political, military, and economic field so as to help build a desirable and bright future.
This study further elaborates some basic conditions with which a genuine kind of patriotism in South Korea can be encouraged. They are; 1) a sense of affection towards fellow countrymen, 2) a spirit of generosity, and 3) a belief that war can not solve national problems facing both Koreas. All in all, a good citizen should be equipped with a pure and innocent sense of patriotism which in due course develops a sense of affection towards his/her nation as well as humanity. In essence, the high level of sound patriotic sentiment being manifested in the principle of UNESCO-the harmonization of nationalism and internationalism-will be the most desirable of all.
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