신경윤리학: 뇌과학의 윤리적, 철학적, 법적, 사회적 문제 = Neuroethics: Ethical, philosophical, legal, and social implications of neuroscience and its applications

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Exciting developments of neuroscience in recent years have brought not only a better understanding of the brain function, but also new ideas on humanity such as origins of self, free will, and mind. While innovative neurotechnologies based on these developments have opened the possibility for applications unforeseeable in the past, new concerns of ethical, philosophical, legal, and social implications associated with these trends have appeared. In the current article, we review the concerns and trends of the neuroethics, which has emerged in recent years to deal with ethical and legal issues related to neuroscience and its applications. We mainly discuss ethical issues that accompany applications of neurotechnologies, and philosophical challenges of how we can understand the new findings in neuroscience.

국문 초록 (Abstract)

신경과학과 이에 기반 한 신경공학 기술의 급격한 발전으로 이전에는 불가능하였던 이해와 응용들이 가능해졌다. 이와 더불어 새로운 윤리적, 철학적, 법적, 사회적 쟁점들이 대두되고 있다. 이 쟁점들은 생명과학의 발전과 더불어 등장하였던 문제들과는 다른 차원의 문제들을 포함하고 있다. 인간성의 기반을 이루는 뇌를 다루고 있기 때문이다. 고등 인지 기능의 신경 기전에 대해 이해하게 되면서 종래 인간성에 대한 철학적 입장에 대해서 의문이 제기되기도 하고, 인간 행위에 대한 종래의 도덕적, 법적 책임의 소재에 의문이 제기되고 있기도 하다. 정신 과정에 개입하는 신경공학 기술 또한 많은 사회적 문제를 야기할 것으로 보인다. 이러한 뇌과학의 윤리적, 철학적, 법적, 사회적 문제를 다루기 위하여 새롭게 형성된 학문 분야를 신경윤리학이라고 한다. 본 논문에서는 2000년 대 초반부터 지금까지 진행되어온 신경윤리학의 문제들을 크게 윤리적, 철학적, 법적, 사회적 쟁점으로 구분하여 소개하고 있다. 윤리적 쟁점에서는 기술 적용의 문제를 중심으로 논란이 될 만한 신경공학 기술들을 소개하고 예상되는 문제들을 다루었다. 철학적 쟁점에서는 인간 본성에 대한 기존의 철학적 입장에 대하여 신경과학의 연구 결과들이 제기하는 새로운 물음들을 소개하고, 여기서 비롯되는 법적 책임의 문제를 중심으로 법적 쟁점을 다루었다. 사회적 쟁점에서는 신경공학 기술과 신경과학 연구 결과들이 사회 경제적 지위와 어떻게 상호작용하는지를 살펴보았다. 아울러, 신경윤리학과 관련한 최근 동향을 간략히 정리하였다. 마지막으로, 뇌과학의 윤리적, 철학적, 법적, 사회적 문제에 대처하는 방안을 제안하였다.

참고문헌 (Reference)

• 1 Gazzaniga, M. S., Dana Press 2005
• 2 Neuroethics needed, 441 (441): 907-, 2006
• 3 권오용, "유네스코 생명윤리와 인권 보편선언의 분석:선언의 윤리적,법적 의미 고찰 및 한국의 생명윤리 규정 검토" 8 (8): 11-26, 2007
• 4 Racine, E., "fMRI in the public eye" 6 (6): 159-164, 2005
• 5 Greene, J.D., "Why are VMPFC patients more utilitarian? A dual-process theory of moral judgment explains" 11 (11): 322-323, 2007
• 6 Morse, S.J., "Voluntary control of behavior and responsibility" 7 (7): 12-13, 2007
• 7 De Ridder, D., "Visualizing out-of-body experience in the brain" 357 (357): 1829-1833, 2007
• 8 Gershon, A.A., "Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression" 160 (160): 835-845, 2003
• 9 Libet, B., "Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act" 106 : 623-642, 1983
• 10 Dennett, D.C., "Time and the observer" 15 (15): 183-247, 1992
• 11 Boyer, E.W., "The serotonin syndrome" 352 (352): 1112-1120, 2005
• 12 Allen,J.J., "The role of psychophysiology in clinical assessment: ERPs in the evaluation of memory" 39 (39): 261-280, 2002
• 13 Damasio, H., "The return of Phineas Gage: clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient" 264 (264): 1102-1105, 1994
• 14 National Research Council, "The polygraph and lie detection" National Academies Press 2003
• 15 Cranford, R.E., "The neurologist as ethics consultant and as a member of the institutional ethics committee. The neuroethicist" 7 (7): 697-713, 1989
• 16 Hyman, S.E., "The neurobiology of addiction: implications for voluntary control of behavior" 7 (7): 8-11, 2007
• 17 Greene, J.D., "The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment" 44 (44): 389-400, 2004
• 18 Racine, E., "The need for a clinical ethics service and its goals in a community healthcare service centre: a survey" 32 (32): 564-566, 2006
• 19 Allen, J.J., "The identification of concealed memories using the event-related potential and implicit behavioral measures: a methodology for prediction in the face of individual differences" 29 (29): 504-522, 1992
• 20 Bradley, R.H., "The home environments of children in the United States part I: variations by age, ethnicity, and poverty status" 72 (72): 1844-1867, 2001
• 21 Iacono, W.G., "The forensic application of 'brain fingerprinting:' why scientists should encourage the use of P300 memory detection methods" 8 (8): 30-32, 2008
• 22 Rees, D., "The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects" University Press 2004
• 23 Langleben, D.D., "Telling truth from lie in individual subjects with fast event-related fMRI" 26 (26): 262-272, 2005
• 24 Lee, S.H., "Synaptic protein degradation underlies destabilization of retrieved fear memory" 319 (319): 1253-1256, 2008
• 25 Blanke, O., "Stimulating illusory own-body perceptions" 419 (419): 269-270, 2002
• 26 Farah, M.J., "Social, legal, and ethical implications of cognitive neuroscience: 'neuroethics' for short" 19 (19): 363-364, 2007
• 27 Seth, A.K., "Single-trial discrimination of truthful from deceptive responses during a game of financial risk using alpha-band MEG signals" 32 (32): 465-476, 2006
• 28 Haynes, J.D., "Reading hidden intentions in the human brain" 17 : 323-328, 2007
• 29 Shema, R., "Rapid erasure of long-term memory associations in the cortex by an inhibitor of PKM zeta" 317 (317): 951-953, 2007
• 30 Farah, M.J., "Poverty, privilege, and brain development: empirical findings;Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice And Policy" Oxford University Press 277-288, 2006
• 31 Neuroethics: Mapping the Field, "Paper presented at the Neuroethics" Mapping the Field 13-14, 2002
• 32 Churchland, P.S., "Our Brains, Our Selves: Reflections on Neuroethical Questions;Bioscience-Society" John-Wiley and Sons 77-96, 1991
• 33 Allen, J.J., "Not devoid of forensic potential" 8 (8): 27-28, 2008
• 34 Fiddick, L., "No interpretation without representation: the role of domain-specific representations and inferences in the Wason selection task" 77 (77): 1-79, 2000
• 35 Roskies, A., "Neuroscientific challenges to free will and responsibility" 10 (10): 419-423, 2006
• 36 Kennedy, D., "Neuroscience and neuroethics" 306 (306): 373-, 2004
• 37 Wolf, S.M., "Neurolaw: the big question" 8 (8): 21-22, 2008
• 38 Meegan, D.V, "Neuroimaging techniques for memory detection: scientific, ethical, and legal issues" 8 (8): 9-20, 2008
• 39 Farah, M.J., "Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical" 9 (9): 34-40, 2005
• 40 Levy, N., "Neuroethics: Challenges for the 21st Century" Cambridge University Press 2007
• 41 Pontius, A.A., "Neuroethics vs neurophysiologically and neuropsychologically uninformed influences in child-rearing, education, emerging hunter-gatherers, and artificial intelligence models of the brain" 72 (72): 451-458, 1993
• 42 Illes, J., "Neuroethics in a new era of neuroimaging" 24 (24): 1739-1741, 2003
• 43 Roskies, A, "Neuroethics for the new millenium" 35 (35): 21-23, 2002
• 44 Canli, T., "Neuroethics and national security" 7 (7): 3-13, 2007
• 45 Knutson, B., "Neural predictors of purchases" 53 (53): 147-156, 2007
• 46 McClure, S.M., "Neural correlates of behavioral preference for culturally familiar drinks" 44 (44): 379-387, 2004
• 47 Clark, A., "Natural-Born Cyborgs: Minds, Technologies, and the Future of Human Intelligence" Oxford University Press 2003
• 48 Garland, B., "Monitoring and Imaging the Brain;Neuroscience and the Law: Brain, Mind, and the Scales of Justice" Dana Press 7-24, 2004
• 49 Timpane, J., "Models for the neuroethical debate in the community" 6 (6): 100-107, 2004
• 50 Moreno, J.D., "Mind Wars: Brain Research and National Defense" Dana Press 2007
• 51 Son, G.H., "Maternal stress produces learning deficits associated with impairment of NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic plasticity" 26 (26): 3309-3318, 2006
• 52 Plassmann, H., "Marketing actions can modulate neural representations of experienced pleasantness" 105 (105): 1050-1054, 2008
• 53 Sowell, E.R., "Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: Inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation" 21 (21): 8819-8829, 2001
• 54 Toga, A.W., "Mapping brain maturation" 29 (29): 148-159, 2006
• 55 Blanke, O., "Linking out-of-body experience and self processing to mental own-body imagery at the temporoparietal junction" 25 (25): 550-557, 2005
• 56 Racine, E., "Internet marketing of neuroproducts: new practices and healthcare policy challenges" 16 (16): 181-194, 2007
• 57 Damasio, A.R., "Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli" 41 (41): 81-94, 1990
• 58 Kay, K.N., "Identifying natural images from human brain activity" 452 (452): 352-355, 2008
• 59 Libet, B., "How does conscious experience arise? The neural time factor" 50 (50): 339-340, 1999
• 60 Illes, J., "From neuroimaging to neuroethics" 6 (6): 205-, 2003
• 61 Greene, J.D., "From neural ‘is’ to moral ‘ought’: what are the moral implications of neuroscientific moral psychology?" 4 (4): 846-849, 2003
• 62 Buchanan, A., "From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice" Cambridge University Press 2000
• 63 Nichols, S., "Folk intuitions on free will" 6 : 57-86, 2006
• 64 Fukushi, T., "Ethical considerations of neuroscience research: the perspectives on neuroethics in Japan" 57 (57): 10-16, 2007
• 65 Farah, M.J., "Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience" 5 (5): 1123-1129, 2002
• 66 Duncan, G.J., "Economic deprivation and early childhood development" 65 : 1994
• 67 Meaney, M.J., "Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: implications for adrenocortical responses to stress" 18 (18): 49-72, 1996
• 68 Fischer, H., "Dispositional pessimism and amygdala activity: a PET study in healthy volunteers" 12 (12): 1635-1638, 2001
• 69 Abe, N., "Deceiving others: distinct neural responses of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala in simple fabrication and deception with social interactions" 19 (19): 287-295, 2007
• 70 Haggard, P., "Conscious intention and motor cognition" 9 (9): 290-295, 2005
• 71 Raeymaekers, P., "Connecting Brains and Society: The present and future of brain science: what is possible, what is desirable?" The Netherlands: King Baudouin Foundation 2004
• 72 Libet, B., "Can conscious experience affect brain activity" 10 : 24-28, 2003
• 73 Mohamed, F.B., "Brain mapping of deception and truth telling about an ecologically valid situation: functional MR imaging and polygraph investigation--initial experience" 238 (238): 679-688, 2006
• 74 Cochrane, T.I., "Brain disease or moral condition? Wrong question" 7 (7): 24-25, 2007
• 75 Glannon, W., "Bioethics and the brain" Oxford University Press 2006
• 76 Norman, K.A., "Beyond mind-reading: multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data" 10 (10): 424-430, 2006
• 77 Spence, S.A., "Behavioural and functional anatomical correlates of deception in humans" 12 (12): 2849-2853, 2001
• 78 Canli, T., "An fMRI study of personality influences on brain reactivity to emotional stimuli" 115 (115): 33-42, 2001
• 79 Greene, J.D., "An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment" 293 (293): 2105-2108, 2001
• 80 Canli, T., "Amygdala response to happy faces as a function of extraversion" 296 (296): 2191-, 2002
• 81 Feinberg, T., "Altered Egos: How the Brain Creates the Self" Oxford University Press 2001
• 82 Denno, D.W., "A mind to blame: new views on involuntary acts" 21 (21): 601-618, 2003
• 83 Allen, J.J., "A comparison of methods for the analysis of event-related potentials in deception detection" 34 (34): 234-240, 1997
• 84 Roskies, A., "A case study in neuroethics: the nature of moral judgment;Neuroethics: Defining the Issues in Theory, Practice And Policy" University Press 17-32, 2006
• 85 Cauffman, E., "(Im)maturity of judgment in adolescence: why adolescents may be less culpable than adults" 18 (18): 741-760, 2000