Definition of professionalism and tools for assessing professionalism in pharmacy practice: a systematic review

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

PurposeIn contemporary pharmacy, the role of pharmacists has become more multifaceted, as they now handle a wider range of tasks and take more responsibility for providing patient care than 20 years ago. This evolution in pharmacists’ responsibilities has been accompanied by the need for pharmacists to display high-quality patient-centred care and counselling, and to demonstrate professionalism, which now needs to be taught and assessed as part of pharmacy education and practice. This study aimed at identifying definitions of professionalism in pharmacy practice and critically evaluating published instruments for assessing professionalism in pharmacy practice.
MethodsWe searched the medical literature listed in Scopus, MEDLINE, and PsycINFO databases from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2018. All papers meeting our selection criteria were reviewed and summarised into a clear review of professionalism requirements in pharmacy practice. Details of the instruments measuring professionalism were reviewed in detail.
ResultsThere is no accepted simple definition of professionalism, although we identified several theoretical and policy frameworks required for professional pharmaceutical practice. We identified 4 instruments (the Behavioural Professionalism Assessment Instrument, Lerkiatbundit’s instrument, the Pharmacy Professionalism Instrument, and the Professionalism Assessment Tool that build on these frameworks and measure professional practice in pharmacy students. These were found to be reliable and valid, but had only been used and tested in student populations.
ConclusionGiven the increasingly broad role of community pharmacists, there is a need for assessments of professionalism in practice. Professionalism is a complex concept that is challenging to measure because it has no standardised definition and the existing literature related to the topic is limited. Currently available instruments focus on measuring the development of the elements of professionalism among pharmacy students, rather than pharmacists.

참고문헌 (Reference)

• 1 Joshua Torrance, "What is holding pharmacists back?" SAGE Publications 147 (147): 278-280, 2014
• 2 William C. McGaghie, "Varieties of Integrative Scholarship" Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 90 (90): 294-302, 2015
• 3 Tabachnick BG, "Using multivariate statistics" Allyn & Bacon 2001
• 4 Alejandra Aguilar, "Towards a definition of professionalism in Australian occupational therapy: Using the Delphi technique to obtain consensus on essential values and behaviours" Wiley 60 (60): 206-216, 2013
• 5 Hye Kyung Jin, "The effect of communication skills training on patient-pharmacist communication in pharmacy education: a meta-analysis" Springer Science and Business Media LLC 23 (23): 633-652, 2018
• 6 G E Miller, "The assessment of clinical skills/competence/performance" Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 65 (65): S63-S67, 1990
• 7 Daniel Brown, "The Taxonomy of Professionalism: Reframing the Academic Pursuit of Professional Development" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 73 (73): 68-, 2009
• 8 Vivienne S. L. Mak, "The Australian pharmacist workforce: employment status, practice profile and job satisfaction" CSIRO Publishing 37 (37): 127-130, 2013
• 9 Holt SL, "Tenets of Professionalism for Pharmacy Students" Wiley 29 (29): 757-759, 2009
• 10 Dana P. Hammer, "Student Professionalism" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 67 (67): 96-, 2003
• 11 Lori J. Duke, "Student Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs Regarding Professionalism" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 69 (69): 104-, 2005
• 12 Nicholas G. Popovich, "Report of the AACP Professionalism Task Force, May 2011" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 75 (75): S4-, 2011
• 13 International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP), "Quality assurance of pharmacy education: the FIP global framework" The International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) 2014
• 14 Martina F Mylrea, "Professionalization in Pharmacy Education as a Matter of Identity" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 79 (79): 142-, 2015
• 15 George F. Blackall, "Professionalism in medical education: The development and validation of a survey instrument to assess attitudes toward professionalism" Informa UK Limited 29 (29): e58-e62, 2009
• 16 Keivan Ahmadi, "Professionalism in Pharmacy: A Continual Societal and Intellectual Challenge" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 76 (76): 72-, 2012
• 17 Hammer DP, "Professional attitudes and behaviors: the “A’s and B’s” of professionalism" 64 : 455-464, 2000
• 18 L. Shamseer, "Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: elaboration and explanation" BMJ 349 : g7647-g7647, 2015
• 19 Wilson S, "Pharmacy professionalism: a systematic analysis of contemporary literature (1998-2009)" 10 : 27-31, 2010
• 20 Margaret Horsburgh, "Multiprofessional learning: the attitudes of medical, nursing and pharmacy students to shared learning" Wiley 35 (35): 876-883, 2001
• 21 Schack DW, "Modification of Hall’s Professionalism Scale for use with pharmacists" 43 : 98-104, 1979
• 22 J Jon Veloski, "Measuring Professionalism: A Review of Studies with Instruments Reported in the Literature between 1982 and 2002" Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 80 (80): 366-370, 2005
• 23 Asnakew Achaw Ayele, "Management of minor ailments in a community pharmacy setting: Findings from simulated visits and qualitative study in Gondar town, Ethiopia" Public Library of Science (PLoS) 13 (13): e0190583-, 2018
• 24 Mohsen Tavakol, "Making sense of Cronbach's alpha" International Journal of Medical Education 2 : 53-55, 2011
• 25 Dana Hammer, "Improving Student Professionalism During Experiential Learning" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 70 (70): 59-, 2006
• 26 Robert A. Berenson, "If You Can’t Measure Performance, Can You Improve It?" American Medical Association (AMA) 315 (315): 645-, 2016
• 27 Jane Broadbent, "If You Can't Measure It, How Can You Manage It? Management and Governance in Higher Educational Institutions" Informa UK Limited 27 (27): 193-198, 2007
• 28 Ellen I. Schafheutle, "How do pharmacy students learn professionalism?" Wiley 20 (20): 118-128, 2012
• 29 Elias Mossialos, "From “retailers” to health care providers: Transforming the role of community pharmacists in chronic disease management" Elsevier BV 119 (119): 628-639, 2015
• 30 Boaz Shulruf, "Factors affecting responses to Likert type questionnaires: introduction of the ImpExp, a new comprehensive model" Springer Science and Business Media LLC 11 (11): 59-78, 2008
• 31 Sanguan Lerkiatbundit, "Factor Structure and Cross-Validation of a Professionalism Scale in Pharmacy Students" Portico 12 (12): 25-49, 2006
• 32 Marie A. Chisholm, "Development of an Instrument to Measure Professionalism" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 70 (70): 85-, 2006
• 33 Mary T Roth, "Development of Student Professionalism" Wiley 29 (29): 749-756, 2009
• 34 Hammer DP, "Development and testing of an instrument to assess behavioral professionalism of pharmacy students" 64 : 141-151, 2000
• 35 Gloria R Grice, "Developing a Professionalism Plan" University of Minnesota 4 (4): 103-, 2013
• 36 Joanna C. Moullin, "Defining professional pharmacy services in community pharmacy" Elsevier BV 9 (9): 989-995, 2013
• 37 Katherine A. Kelley, "Cross-Validation of an Instrument for Measuring Professionalism Behaviors" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 75 (75): 179-, 2011
• 38 Chalmers RK, "Contemporary issues: professionalism in pharmacy" 10-12, 1997
• 39 Beardsley RS, "Chair report of the APhA-ASP/AACP-COD Task Force on Professionalization: enhancing professionalism in pharmacy education and practice" 60 : 26S-, 1996
• 40 Paul M. Rutter, "Can professionalism be measured?: evidence from the pharmacy literature" Instituto de Salud Carlos III/BNCS/SciELO Espana 8 (8): 18-28, 2010
• 41 Margaret A. Miklich, "Beliefs and behaviors of professionally engaged pharmacists" Elsevier BV 56 (56): 405-411, 2016
• 42 R Adepu, "Attitudes and behaviors of practicing community pharmacists towards patient counselling" OMICS Publishing Group 71 (71): 285-289, 2009
• 43 Therese I. Poirier, "Assessment of Pharmacy Student Professionalism Across a Curriculum" American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 74 (74): 62-, 2010
• 44 D. P. Baker, "Assessing teamwork attitudes in healthcare: development of the TeamSTEPPS teamwork attitudes questionnaire" BMJ 19 (19): e49-e49, 2010
• 45 Honghe Li, "Assessing medical professionalism: A systematic review of instruments and their measurement properties" Public Library of Science (PLoS) 12 (12): e0177321-, 2017
• 46 Susan Hrisos, "Are there valid proxy measures of clinical behaviour? a systematic review" Springer Science and Business Media LLC 4 (4): 37-, 2009
• 47 Wendell T. Hill, "American Pharmaceutical Association; Academy of Students of Pharmacy; American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy; Council of Deans Task Force on Professionalism. White paper on pharmacy student professionalism: what we as pharmacists believe our profession to be determines what it is" Elsevier BV 40 (40): 96-102, 2000
• 48 Richard L. Cruess, "Amending Miller’s Pyramid to Include Professional Identity Formation" Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 91 (91): 180-185, 2016
• 49 Mary Ellen Burke, "ABCDs of Professional Introductions" Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 41 (41): 115-116, 2016
• 50 Maria Miller Thurston, "A comparison of baseline professional attitudes and behaviors among student pharmacists to inform a co-curricular professional engagement program" Elsevier BV 10 (10): 875-885, 2018
• 51 Tim J. Wilkinson, "A Blueprint to Assess Professionalism: Results of a Systematic Review" Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) 84 (84): 551-558, 2009