논문 : 고려(高麗)-명(明) 외교문서(外交文書) 서식(書式)의 성립과 배경 = Forms of Diplomatic Documents Exchanged between Goryeo and Ming Dynasties, and the Fashion of such Exchanges(Origin and Background)
저자
발행기관
학술지명
권호사항
발행연도
2010
작성언어
Korean
주제어
KDC
911
자료형태
학술저널
수록면
139-207(69쪽)
제공처
소장기관
In the premodern era, there were legally legitimate, unequal relationships existent between countries of East Asia, and such inequality was demonstrated through rituals and protocols (禮制). At the heart of all the diplomatic exchanges that continued between countries with such relationship, there were the diplomatic documents that involved not only the kings of both countries, but also the offices that were directly responsible for arranging diplomatic functions. And the protocols regarding such documents were strictly established. Analyzed in this dissertation are the formats of the diplomatic documents displayed in 《Yimun/吏文》, a compilation of diplomatic documents that were produced during the transitional period between Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. It is intended to shed some light upon the task of determining what kind of changes occurred to the Goryeo dynasty`s diplomatic policy and relationships, in the wake of its counterpart`s shift of power, from the Mongol Yuan empire to the Chinese Ming dynasty. Right after the foundation of the dynasty, Ming government tried to establish a unitary, emperor-centric hierarchy structure, by bringing modifications to several areas of governance such as the governmental officials` inner structure, the legal system, and the ritual code. The formats and principles regarding how to generate a (governmental) document and how to process (行移體式) it, were firmly established according to the officials` vertical and horizontal relationships among themselves, and according to their respective jurisdiction over certain matters as well. Such established formats and principles were officialized by being dictated inside 《Hongmu Cheje/洪武禮制 (Hongmu protocols)》. The diplomatic documents Ming sent to Goryeo had the exact same outlook with the governmental documents that were generated and circulated inside Ming. Such practice had very much to do with the earlier practice, in which Goryeo, as a local provincial entity (named Jeongdong Haengseong/征東行省) inside the Yuan imperial realm, exchanged (Chinese) governmental documents (such as ``Ja/咨`` documents) in its relationship with Yuan. Goryeo as well sent documents (to Ming) that perfectly fit the governmental document format of the Ming dynasty. In their relationship with the Yuan empire, the Goryeo kings, as the Seungsang head of the Jeongdong Haengseong provincial authority (part of the Yuan inner local hierarchy structure), sent the governmental Ja/咨 documents to Yuan. On the other hand, as the head of the Goryeo government, the kings communicated with Yuan`s Jungseo-seong/中書省 office by using Chiseo-style (致書式) documents. During the Ming period, Goryeo was not part of the Ming dynasty`s local provincial system in terms of either status or form, yet Goryeo kings continued to use governmental document formats. It was an act of inheriting the previous practices, and also an act of recognizing the new world (East Asian) order with Ming at the center, and an admission that the Korean peninsula was also to participate in such order. There were mainly three types of diplomatic documents. First, there were Jo/詔·Chik/勅 and Pyo/表·Ju/奏 documents exchanged between kings of both countries. Second, there were diplomatic documents that were exchanged between the king of the tributary state and the Chinese governmental offices or high ranking officials (the Chiseo-style documents). Third, there were the Chinese governmental documents such as Ja/咨·Jeong/呈·Johwae/照會. In the early half of the Goryeo dynasty, in their relationship with either Song/宋, Yo/遼 or Geum/金, Goryeo people only used Jo/詔·Chik/勅 and Pyo/表·Ju/奏, because Goryeo was an entity recognized by its own population as a separately existing, ``foreign`` country to China. That changed coming into the Yuan period, when the Goryeo kings, (even) as head of the Goryeo government, started to exchange Chiseo-style documents in their dealings with Yuan governmental officials. Yet in such exchanges, both ends` status in the hierarchy chain engulfing both countries were not displayed so vividly. On the other hand, governmental documents had strict regulations regarding the forms, that were defined by both the senders` and recipients` official statuses, as we can see from the types of such governmental documents, labelled like ``up-going`` (上行), ``delivery between equivalents`` (平行), or ``down-sending`` (下行). In the ending days of the Yuan empire, Goryeo`s communication with the military factions that were rising everywhere throughout Southern China, or with Japan since the foundation of Ming, proceeded via exchanging Chiseo-style documents. This suggests that outside the realm of influence of either Yuan or Ming, Goryeo`s communication continued with various entities, as a separate country of its own, and not as part of the Chinese realm. Yet after the establishment of a formal tributary relationship between Ming and Goryeo, only the governmental documents were used in communication between Goryeo, and the Ming offices. Communications using Chiseo-style documents were considered as an act of violation of the principle of ``Vassals not allowed to conduct diplomacy on their own (人臣無外交).`` In other words, it was considered as a private venture in diplomacy (私交), and was strongly prohibited. The governmental documents were used, on the basis of accepting Ming`s ritual & protocol system and its governmental structure, and also with the premise of admitting that Goryeo was now part of that. As the governmental protocols regarding document generation and procedures dictated, the Goryeo kings exchanged Ja/咨 documents(usually delivered between entities sharing similar ranks) with Ming offices holding the rank of 1&2-Pum, and received ``up-going`` documents (Jeong/呈) from 3-Pum ranking offices. Goryeo`s 1-Pum ranking office, the Do-pyeong`euisa-sa, sent ``up-going`` documents(Shin/申·Jeong/呈) to Ming`s 1&2-Pum ranking offices, and received ``down-sending`` Johwae/照會 documents from them. We can see that the Goryeo kings roughly held the status of a 1&2- Pum ranking office inside the Ming governmental ranking structure, and the Goryeo government`s Do-pyeong`euisa-sa was being recognized as a 3-Pum office, in the eyes of Ming. Considering the official uniform code (冠服) regarding Goryeo, which dictated that "In awareness of the Chinese governmental officials`` 9-class system, (the Goryeo officials` ranking) should start 2 classes lower from the top," one could say that Goryeo`s governmental offices held a status usualIy 2 ranks lower (遞降) than their originally established ranks, in terms of diplomatic exchanges with Ming China. Such status was also the same with other tributary states of Ming, such as Annam/安南, Jeomseong/占城 and Yugu/琉球. Ming did not impose an influence that was as strong as the one that Yuan had over Goryeo, yet ironically it was more determined to position Goryeo in its own ritual & protocol system, and was much more active in letting its intentions be known to the Korean people. Their (continuation of) usage of governmental documents suggests that they perceived diplomatic functions as an extension of domestic governing and administrating. Such sentiment and stance can be well identified from the so-called concept of ``一視同仁`` (i shih t`ung jen, regarding everyone equally and impartially). This concept reveals Ming`s own view of the world, wanting to bring a unitary order to the world (East Asia). Also for political reasons, Ming reinforced its own emperor-centric dictatorship, banned any political factions other than the king from privately communicating with Goryeo, and also prohibited the use of Chiseo-style documents. Goryeo, which just experienced the presence of a powerful empire such as Yuan, was ready to acknowledge China`s status as the center of East Asia. Goryeo accepted and embraced a new system of rituals & protocols strongly suggested by Ming, therefore agreed to recognize Ming`s prominent status in East Asia and tried to diminish any potentials for future conflicts. Goryeo became a tributary state, and was positioned inside a Ming-centric East Asian order, effectively involved in a new system of rituals & protocols.
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