수대 돈황 막고굴과 장안·낙양 : 통일 그리고 Silk Road Dream = The Dunhuang Mogao Caves and the Changan and Luoyang Regions during the Sui Dynasty: Unification and the Silk Road Dream

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This study explores East-West cultural interactions during the Sui dynasty by examining the structures and murals of the Dunhuang Mogao Caves, also known as the Thousand Buddha Grottos, which so far have received less attention than their importance merits. It focuses on the relationship between Dunhuang and the Changan and Luoyang regions, rather than on the interactive relationship between Dunhuang and the countries to the west of China hitherto emphasized by academic circles. Furthermore, it examines the important role that Dunhuang played during the Sui dynasty and the impact of the revival and subsequent frustration of Sui Emperor Yang's pipedream Silk Road initiative on the Dunhuang Mogao Caves.
First of all, in terms of the grottos' structure, the central-pillar grottos, which were prevalent in the Northern and Southern dynasties, continued into the Sui dynasty, but there was a change in both the shape and height of the central pillar and in the Buddha statue enshrined in the central pillar. The overall structure has been confirmed as forming a set relationship with the three-wall structure, each wall having a niche.
Investigation of the Mogao Caves has identified not only the popular but short-lived three-wall structure with niches characteristic of the Sui dynasty, but also a cave structure with an altar set into the front wall (正壁設壇窟), which was only built during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, and a cave structure with three walls, each with an altar (三壁設壇窟). These grotto structures have all been found to share similarities with those in the regions of Hebei, Henan, and Shanxi, which date from the Northern and Southern dynasties to the Sui dynasty.
In addition to the different grotto structure, the Sui Mogao Caves contained fewer of the murals of the Buddha's Life Story and the Buddha's Previous Birth Story popular during the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, and instead featured a new style of mural, “Paintings of Sutras”.
First, the Murals of the Vimalakirti Sutra in the Sui Mogao Caves depict statues of Vimalakirti and Manjusri sitting inside house-shaped buildings. In fact, this layout differs from that of the Mogao Caves in the Northern and Southern dynasties, and rather seems to be connected with the sculptures inside the grottos, represented by the Liushi Cave of the Longmen Grottos, in the Henan region. A close examination of the painting of the Amitabha Buddha's Pure Land in the Sui Mogao Caves, with the focus on the canvas structure expressing the Western Paradise World and the posture of the Amitabha Triad, revealed many similarities with those of the Nan Xiangtangshan Caves in Northern Qi.
The newly discovered details of the structure and murals of the Sui Mogao Caves are different from those of their counterparts in Central Asia, which were strongly reflected in the Dunhuang grottos in the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, and are closely connected with the grottos in the Changan and Luoyang regions of Eastern China in particular. This suggests that, during the Sui dynasty, there was a close interaction between the Dunhuang region and the Changan and Luoyang regions. Among such interactions, human interactions are deemed the most important.
First, as regards the movement of people, the examination of history books and cemetery names has made it possible to identify political officials who were appointed to the Dunhuang area from inland China. Second, when the Stupa to Emperor Wen of Sui was erected in 601, it is noted that the monk Jiui, who stayed in the Mogao Caves Jisang monastery-Sunggyo Temple for several years after being sent there, was identified as a monk of Northern Qi lineage. Furthermore, analysis of the Buddhist scriptures discovered in Dunhuang revealed that the monks who lived in Changan moved to the Dunhuang area, suggesting the spread of the Buddhist culture of the Changan and Luoyang regions.
Lastly, Emperor Yang's Silk Road initiative was presented as the reason for and background to the massive change that occurred once again in the Mogao Caves during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang sent Baegu to Dunhuang on a diplomatic mission with various western countries, and he himself traveled to the Hexi region in 607. This fact is presumed to constitute the background to the major changes that occurred in Dunhuang, a key center of East-West exchange at that time, and in the Mogao Caves. However, Emperor Yang's Silk Road initiative lost its force with the fall of the dynasty, and, as a result, it is presumed that the excavation of Mogao Caves and new elements also lost the light of their glory.

참고문헌 (Reference)

• 1 양은경, "중국 불교석굴" 다할미디어 2006
• 2 주경미, "중국 고대 불사리장엄 연구" 일지사 2003
• 3 박은화, "수당대 돈황 막고굴의 유마힐경변상화" 4 : 1994
• 4 김혜원, "미술사의 정립과 확산 2" 2006
• 5 石松日奈子, "龍門石窟一遷五百周年國際學術討論會論文集" 文物出版社 1996
• 6 夏鼐, "鹹陽底張灣隋墓出土的東羅馬金幣" 3 : 1959
• 7 李裕群, "駝山石窟開鑿年代與造像題材考" 6 : 1998
• 8 寧夏回族自治區文物管理委員會, "須彌山石窟內容總錄" 文物出版社 1997
• 9 寧夏回族自治區文物管理委員會, "須彌山石窟" 文物出版社 1988
• 10 陳悅新, "須彌山早期洞窟的分期硏究" 4 : 1995
• 11 曾布川寬, "響堂山石窟考" 62 : 1990
• 12 田村節子, "響堂山石窟の現狀" 153 : 1984
• 13 水野淸一, "響堂山石窟" 東方文化學院京都硏究所 1937
• 14 정재훈, "隋煬帝(604～617)의 對外政策과 天下 巡行" 중국사학회 (30) : 27-70, 2004
• 15 "隋書"
• 16 梁銀景, "隋代 長安ㆍ洛陽지역 불교조각 연구" 한국불교미술사학회 (18) : 155-183, 2002
• 17 이진선, "隋 煬帝의 西巡과 郡縣 設置" 부산경남사학회 (115) : 65-88, 2020
• 18 李裕群, "關於安陽小南海石窟的几个問題" 6 : 1999
• 19 趙紹祖, "金石文鈔"
• 20 李裕群, "鄴城地區石窟與刻經" 4 : 1997
• 21 邯鄲市文物保管所, "邯鄲鼓山水浴寺石窟調査報告" 4 : 1987
• 22 "資治通鑒"
• 23 孟憲實, "論高宗、武則天竝稱“二聖”事" 102 : 2011
• 24 姚崇新, "試論高昌國的佛教與佛教教團" 4 : 1999
• 25 陝西省文物管理委員會, "西安郭家灘隋姬威墓清理簡報" 8 : 1959
• 26 薑亮夫, "莫高窟年表" 上海古籍出版社 1985
• 27 顔娟英, "考古與歷史文化-慶祝高去尋先生八十大壽論文集, 下" 正中 1991
• 28 項一峰, "維摩詰經與維摩詰經變－麥積山127窟維摩詰經變壁畫試探" 2 : 1998
• 29 段文杰, "略論敦煌壁畫的風格特點和藝術成就" 2 : 1982
• 30 李淸泉, "濟南地區石窟․摩崖造像調査與初步硏究" 2 : 2000
• 31 河南省古代建築保護硏究所, "河南安陽靈泉寺石窟及小南海石窟" 4 : 1988
• 32 劉東光, "有關安陽兩處石窟的几个問題及補充" 8 : 1991
• 33 "明嘉靖刻本 『青州府志』. 『天一閣藏明代方志刊』 嘉靖青州府志-上冊"
• 34 王惠民, "敦煌隋至唐前期藥師圖像考察" 2 : 2000
• 35 趙聲良, "敦煌隋朝經變畵藝術" 3 : 2018
• 36 羅華慶, "敦煌藝術中的觀音普門品和觀音經變" 3 : 1987
• 37 濱田 瑞美, "敦煌莫高窟隋代の維摩經變について" 9 : 2019
• 38 賀世哲, "敦煌莫高窟的涅槃變" 1 : 1986
• 39 賀世哲, "敦煌莫高窟壁畫中的維摩詰經變" 2 : 1983
• 40 敦煌硏究所, "敦煌莫高窟供養人題記" 文物出版社 1986
• 41 史葦湘, "敦煌莫高窟中的福田經變壁畫" 9 : 1980
• 42 金維諾, "敦煌壁畫維摩變的發展" 2 : 1959
• 43 羅華慶, "敦煌壁畫中的東方藥師淨土變" 5 : 1989
• 44 王惠民, "敦煌佛敎與石窟營建" 甘肅敎育出版社 2013
• 45 張總, "山東歷城黃石崖摩崖龕窟調査" 4 : 1996
• 46 李裕群, "封龍山石窟開鑿年代與造像題材" 10 : 1998
• 47 河南省古代建築保護硏究所, "寶山靈泉寺" 河南人民出版社 1991
• 48 李裕群, "太原姑姑洞與瓦窯村石窟調査報告" 3 : 1995
• 49 李裕群, "天龍山石窟分期硏究" 1 : 1992
• 50 李裕群, "天龍山石窟" 科學出版社 2003
• 51 孟繁興, "南響堂石窟淸理記" 5 : 1992
• 52 北京大學考古實習隊, "南響堂石窟新發現窟檐遺迹及龕像" 5 : 1992
• 53 邯鄲市峰峰礦區文管所, "南響堂山石窟新發現窟檐遺蹟及龕像" 5 : 1992
• 54 顔娟英, "北齊禪觀窟的圖像考-從小南海石窟到響堂山石窟" 70 : 1998
• 55 丁明夷, "北朝佛敎史的重要補正-析安陽三處石窟的造像題材" 4 : 1988
• 56 李崇峰, "佛敎考古-從印度到中國" 上海古籍出版社 2014
• 57 丁明夷, "中國美術全集ㆍ雕塑篇3ㆍ鞏顯天龍山響堂山安陽石窟雕刻" 文物出版社 1989
• 58 宿白, "中國石窟寺研究" 文物出版社 1996
• 59 張寶璽, "中國石窟ㆍ永靖炳靈寺" 文物出版社 1989
• 60 李其琼, "中國石窟ㆍ敦煌莫高窟 (二)" 文物出版社 1989
• 61 樊錦詩, "中國石窟ㆍ敦煌莫高窟 (二)" 文物出版社 1989
• 62 岡崎敬, "中國石窟ㆍ敦煌莫高窟 (一)" 平凡社 1980
• 63 馬世長, "中國佛敎石窟的類型和形制特徵-以龜玆和敦煌爲中心" 100 : 2006
• 64 劉保金, "中國佛典通論" 河北教育出版社 1997
• 65 양은경, "中國 駝山石窟 佛敎彫刻에 대한 고찰" 2 : 1995
• 66 서남영, "中國 山西省의 小形佛敎石窟에 관한 硏究 -羊頭山의 북조 석굴군을 중심으로-" 불교미술사학회 27 : 185-222, 2019
• 67 "『歷代名畫記』. 『叢書集成新編』 53冊"
• 68 임영애, "『유마경』의 유마거사상과 문수보살상 不二인 세속과 탈속" 한국미술사학회 286 (286): 5-29, 2015
• 69 趙一德, "2005年雲岡國際學術硏討會論文集" 文物出版社 2006
• 70 孫修身, "1987年敦煌石窟硏究國際討論會文集" 遼寧美術出版社 1987
• 71 李永寧, "1987年敦煌石窟硏究國際討論會文集" 遼寧美術出版社 1987